Approaches in Psychology

• Describe the behaviourist's approach:

  * Behaviourists is a psychological role that focuses on observeable behaviour rather than mental processes.

  * One theory is Classical Conditioning - learning by association -Pavlov's dogs

  * Second theory is Operant Conditioning - learning by consequences - Skinner's Rats
• Supportive Argument for Behaviourist's approach: (Evaluation) 'Reductionism' 


  Breaking down behaviour into stimulus-response units allow cause and effect. Skinner showed how reinforcement influenced behaviour. Use of objective scientific methods led to raised status of psychology.
• Supportive Argument for Behaviourist's approach: (Evaluation) 'Research'


  Research has made valuable contributions to finding explanations for behaviours + led to the development of treatments. For example; token economy in prisons led to desireable outcomes. It has led to the successful treatment for phobias.
• Rejecting Argument for Behaviourist's approach: (Evaluation) 'Behaviour based on past experiences...'


  Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum of our reinforcement history. He said free will is an illusionment however environmental determinism constrasts with the idea of free will.
• Rejecting Argument for Behaviourist's approach: (Evaluation) 'Behaviourist's approach is a Reductionist view on behaviour'

  This means it reduces behaviour to stimulus-response units and ignores the influence of mental processes. Cognitive psychologists consider mental processes involved in learning. Behaviourism oversimplifies behaviour in terms of these S-R units.
• Rejecting Argument for Behaviourist's approach: (Evaluation) 'Ethical issues'

  Animals used in these experiments are often starved in harsh conditions. Negative aspects of controlling behaviour for example; treating homosexuality by shocking someone everytime they saw a picture of the same sex.
• Who is Wundt? (4)


  * he published one of the first books on psychology, helping to establish it as an independent branch of science

  * founded Institute of experimental psychology

  * use the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception

  * showed that introspection could be used to establish general theories about mental processes
• What is introspection?


  A systematic analysis of one’s own conscious experience in response to their feelings. Thoughts are broken down into the component parts. Individuals were asked to support their feelings.
• supporting argument for Introspection (evaluation) ‘Introspection is still used today’

  Introspection is still used today, E Griffith used introspection to study the cognitive processes of fruit machine gamblers. He asked them to think aloud whilst playing a fruit machine microphone.

  E Hunter used introspection to study happiness in work.

  Introspection is still sometimes used in modern scientific psychological research
• supporting argument for Introspection (evaluation) ‘Establish psychology as a science’


  The focus or mental process to introspection can be seen as a form of the cognitive approach. Early behaviourists such as Pavlov have made a greater contribution to the development of psychology as a produce reliable findings with explanatory principles that were generalisable - much more in keeping with the scientific approach
• Rejecting argument for Introspection (evaluation) ‘unreplicable’


  Introspection relied on participants, revealing their own own private subjective experience. These also cannot be replicated and were therefore seen as unreliable. The methods were not reliably, reproduced and difficult to replicate due to the subjective nature of people reporting on their own experience. Wundt’s methods are criticised for being subjective in contrast to the objectivity of the scientific process. It is difficult for modern psychologists to objectively study unobservable matter
• What is the emergence of psychology??

  According to John Watson introspection was unscientific and unvalid, he believed that psychology should focus on observable behaviours, rather than subjective experiences. He said that the cognitive approach proposes the mind And mental process scientifically by making references.
• What is classical conditioning?


  Classical conditioning is learning by association. Two stimuli compared together an unconditional stimulus (Causes a natural response) paired with a neutral stimulus (produces no response). The NS eventually becomes a conditioned stimulus as it produces the same response as the UCS. The response produced is called a conditioned response.
• How did Pavlov develop classical conditioning with his dogs?

  Pavlov paired food (which naturally causes salvation) with a neutral stimulus (bell). He repeated the several times till the bell became the conditioned stimulus.

  Food (UCS) -> Salivation (UCR)

  Bell (NS) -> No response.

  Food (UCS) + Bell (NS) -> Salivation (UCR)

  Bell (CS) -> Salivation (CR)
• What happens when a conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without a unconditioned stimulus?

  Extinction occurs, resulting in a decrease in the conditioned response.
• What is meant by spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

  After extinction, the CR may temporarily reappear when the CS is presented again.
• What is meant by generalisation in classical conditioning?

  A similar stimuli to the CS can also trigger the CR
• What is meant by discrimination in classical conditioning?

  The ability to differentiate between the CS and a similar stimuli Whilst only responding to that specific CS
• What are the advantages of classical conditioning?

  * learning could be experimental

  * research was objective

  * Led to therapies for the treatment of disorders, such as phobias and addictions
• What are the negatives to classical conditioning?


  * difficulties involved in explanation from animal research to human behaviours (we aren’t the same!)

  * lots of human behaviour is voluntary so cannot be explained by CC

  * CC ignores the role of cognitive and biological factors because it focuses like external observable behaviour.
• What is meant by operant conditioning?


  Learning by consequence. This means that behaviour that results in desirable consequences will be more likely to happen again vice versa.
• In operant conditioning, what is meant by positive reinforcement?

  The addition of a positive outcome or reward after a behaviour will make it more likely to happen again
• What is meant by negative reinforcement in operant conditioning


  Type of learning that strengthens our response by removing or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus for e.g wearing your seatbelt to avoid the beeping noise
• What is meant by punishment in operant conditioning?

  An unpleasant consequence following a behaviour
• How did Skinner use positive reinforcement in his experiment?

  He, placed a hungry rat in a box, the box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved it accidentally touched the lever. This Released a food pellet. The hungry rat quickly learnt to go to the lever for food.
• How did Skinner use negative reinforcement in his experiment?

  Skinner place the rat in a box where received an electric shock from the plate. As the rat moved, it accidentally touched the lever which stopped the shock. The rat quickly learnt to go to the lever to stop the shock.
• What are the strengths of operant conditioning?


  * provided theories of learning and laws

  * made valuable contribution to society and providing explanation for behaviours

  * positive enforcement is used in schools
• What are the limitations of operant conditioning?


  * difficulties involved in extrapolation from animal research to human behaviours

  * OP ignores the role of cognitive and biological behaviours
• What are the differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

  * CC is involuntary whereas OC is voluntary

  * responses are reinforced in OC not in CC

  * CC is learning by association, OC is learning by consequence
• What are the similarities between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?


  * both involved associations between behaviour and environment

  * both focus on observable behaviour

  * both use scientific methods e.g lab experiments
• What are the assumptions of social learning theory?

  * learning takes place in a social context.

  * social learning is learning through observation and modelling, it occurs by observing the behaviour of others

  * mediational processes, affect behaviour
• Name and describe the four mediational processes:

  1 . Attention.: the extent to which we notice a behaviour.

  2. Retention.: how well the behaviour is remembered

  3. Reproduction.: the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour.

  4. Motivation.: the will to perform the behaviour. This is determined by whether it is rewarded or punished.
• Define imitation in regards to social learning theory

  Copying other peoples behaviour
• Define role model in regards to social learning theory

  A person who possesses similar characteristics that you like
• Define identification in regards to social learning theory

  When observer associates themselves with their role model
• Define modelling in regards to social learning theory

  When the role model imitates, a specific behaviour observer follows
• Define mediational processes

  Internal mental processes that occurs and determines which behaviour is required
• Define vicarious reinforcement in regards to social learning theory


  Enforcement that occurs to observing someone else being awarded for their behaviour
• In social learning theory, what was Banduras method?


  72. Children were split into three groups of 24. There were three conditions.

  Condition one is where aggressive children observed a video of an adult (role model) attacking a Bobo doll.

  Condition two is where non-aggressive children observed, an adult assembling a toy showing no aggression

  Conditions three was a control, and where no adult model was observed
• What were the results of Bandura’s experiment in social learning theory?


  Children who had observed aggressive model (condition one) displayed higher levels of aggression than those in either of the other two conditions.

  Children were more likely to directly imitate same-sex role models.

  Boys were also more physically aggressive in all the conditions