FG

• What is the process of cytokinesis in animal cells?

  A cleavage furrow separates the daughter cells
• How does cytokinesis occur in plant cells?

  A cell plate grows to separate the daughter cells
• What are all living organisms made up of?

  Cells
• What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?

  Prokaryotic cells have no defined nucleus and no membrane-bound organelles
• What are eukaryotic cells characterized by?

  Eukaryotic cells have different membrane-bound organelles that perform specific functions
• How can cells transport materials?

  Cells can transport materials passively along a concentration gradient or through pumps using energy
• From where do cells arise?

  Cells arise from preexisting cells in the process known as the cell cycle
• What is organic chemistry?

  • The study of hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen) and their derivatives
• What is inorganic chemistry?

  • The study of all substances other than hydrocarbons and their derivatives
• What is the Octet Rule in relation to carbon?

  The Octet Rule states that atoms tend to bond in such a way that they have eight electrons in their valence shell
• How many valence electrons does carbon have?

  Carbon has 4 valence electrons
• How does carbon achieve an octet of valence electrons?

  Carbon shares 4 additional electrons by forming 4 covalent bonds
• What are the ways carbon can bond to meet its 4 bond requirement?

  Carbon can bond to 4 other atoms, 3 other atoms with 2 single bonds and 1 double bond, or 2 other atoms with 2 double bonds or a triple bond and a single bond
• What are functional groups in organic molecules?

  • Groups of atoms that involve bonds between:
  • C & O
  • C & N
  • C & S
  • C & PO$_4^{3-}$
  • Responsible for the properties, reactions, and physiological roles of those molecules
• What can be expected from simple molecules that contain the same functional group?

  They can be expected to react in similar ways
• What are carbohydrates?


  • The most abundant class of bioorganic molecules on Earth
  • Produced by green plants through photosynthesis
  • Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO)
• What are the two main types of carbohydrates produced by plants?

  Cellulose and starch
• How do humans obtain carbohydrates?

  Humans obtain carbohydrates from the dietary intake of plant materials
• What are the functions of carbohydrates in humans?

  • Oxidation provides energy
  • Storage as short-term energy reserve in the form of glycogen
  • Source of carbon atoms for synthesis of other biological substances
  • Structural components of DNA and RNA (ribose & deoxyribose)
  • Components of cell membranes (glycolipids)
  • Involved in cell-cell and cell-molecule recognition processes (glycoproteins)
• What is the largest source of dietary calories for most of the world’s population?

  Carbohydrates
• What is the general formula for carbohydrates?

  C$_n$(H$_2$O)$_n$
• How can carbohydrates be classified?

  • According to molecular size or number of sugar units:
  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Oligosaccharides
  • Polysaccharides
• What is a monosaccharide?

  A carbohydrate that contains a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit
• What are the characteristics of monosaccharides?

  Monosaccharides usually contain 3-7 carbon atoms, are water-soluble, and are crystalline solids
• Give examples of monosaccharides.

  Glucose, galactose, and fructose
• What is a disaccharide?


  A carbohydrate that consists of two monosaccharides covalently bonded to each other
• What are the characteristics of disaccharides?

  Disaccharides produce monosaccharides upon hydrolysis, are water-soluble, and are crystalline
• Give examples of disaccharides.

  Sucrose, lactose, and maltose