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• What is organic chemistry?

  Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the structure, properties, and reactions of compounds that contain carbon.
• Which compounds are excluded from organic chemistry?

  Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbonates, bicarbonates, and cyanides are excluded from organic chemistry.
• What type of bond is primarily studied in organic chemistry?

  The study of molecules containing the carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bond and their reactions is primarily focused on in organic chemistry.
• What is the origin of the term "organic chemistry"?

  The term "organic chemistry" comes from the word organism.
• What was the belief about organic compounds prior to 1828?

  Prior to 1828, it was believed that all organic compounds could only be obtained from organisms or their remains.
• What did the theory of "Vitalism" state?

  The theory of "Vitalism" stated that a "vital force" from living organisms was necessary to make an organic compound.
• Who synthesized urea from an inorganic compound, and what was the compound used?

  Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea from the inorganic compound ammonium cyanate, NH₄OCN.
• What was the significance of Wöhler's synthesis of urea?

  Wöhler's synthesis of urea led to the disappearance of the "Vitalism" theory.
• What reaction did Wöhler perform to produce ammonium cyanate?

  Wöhler mixed silver cyanate and ammonium chloride to produce solid silver chloride and aqueous ammonium cyanate.
• What are the physical properties that differentiate inorganic and organic compounds?

  • **Solubility**:
  • Inorganic: In water
  • Organic: In organic solvents
  • **Electrical conduction**:
  • Inorganic: Yes
  • Organic: No
  • **Melting/Boiling Point**:
  • Inorganic: High (>700°C)
  • Organic: Low (<300°C)
• What are dipole-dipole interactions?

  Dipole-dipole interactions are attractive forces between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule.
• How do dipole-dipole forces compare to ionic or covalent bonds?

  Dipole-dipole forces are much weaker than ionic or covalent bonds.
• What are Van der Waals forces?

  Van der Waals forces are weak forces of attraction between nonpolar molecules due to the constant motion of electrons.
• What causes London dispersion forces?

  London dispersion forces are caused by the motion of electrons creating momentary dipoles in nonpolar molecules.
• How do hydrogen bonds form?

  Hydrogen bonds form when a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a strongly electronegative atom, such as oxygen, fluorine, or nitrogen.
• Why does water have a higher boiling point than H₂S?

  Water boils at a much higher temperature than H₂S due to strong hydrogen bonding.
• What are the characteristics of carbon that contribute to its versatility and uniqueness?

  • Carbon can form chains (branched and unbranched) or ring molecules.
  • Carbon atoms have 4 valence electrons and can form 4 covalent bonds.
  • Different organic compounds can be formed by changing the arrangement of the same atoms.
  • Carbon compounds are generally stable and react slowly unless a catalyst is present.
• What are the types of hydrocarbons?

  • Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Contain only carbon and hydrogen.
  • Alkanes: Only single covalent bonds (CnH_2n+2)
  • Alkenes: One or more carbon-carbon double bonds (CnH_2n)
  • Alkynes: One or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (CnH_2n-2)
  • Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Contain benzene and its derivatives.
• What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons?

  Saturated hydrocarbons contain only single carbon-carbon bonds, while unsaturated hydrocarbons contain double or triple carbon-carbon bonds.
• What are the general formulas for alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes?

  • **Alkanes**: C_nH_2n+2
  • **Alkenes**: C_nH_2n
  • **Alkynes**: C_nH_2n-2
• What are the general formulas and functional groups for alcohols and phenols?

  • Alcohols:
  • General Formula: R-OH
  • Functional Group: Hydroxyl group (OH)
  • Phenols:
  • General Formula: Ar-OH
  • Functional Group: Hydroxyl group (OH) connected to a benzene ring
• What is the significance of the bond angle in alcohols?

  The bond angle in alcohols is approximately the tetrahedral value of 109° due to sp³ hybridization of oxygen.
• How does the hydroxyl group in alcohols affect their boiling points compared to alkanes?

  The hydroxyl group allows alcohols to form hydrogen bonds, resulting in higher boiling points compared to their alkane counterparts.
• What is the solubility rule for organic compounds in water?

  An organic compound is generally miscible with water if the carbon to oxygen ratio does not exceed 4:1.
• How do alcohols behave in terms of acidity and basicity?

  Alcohols are amphoteric, meaning they can act as weak acids or weak bases.
• What are ethers and their general formula?

  • **Ethers**: Class of organic compounds characterized by an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups.
  • General Formula: R-O-R' or Ar-O-Ar
• What is the reactivity of ethers compared to other organic compounds?

  Ethers have relatively low reactivity overall but can react with strong acids and serve as Lewis bases.
• What are aldehydes and ketones characterized by?

  • **Aldehydes**: Contain a carbonyl group (C=O) with the functional group -CHO.
  • **Ketones**: Contain a carbonyl group (C=O) with the functional group -CO-.
• What happens when a primary alcohol is oxidized?

  Oxidation of a primary alcohol produces an aldehyde.
• What is the physical property of carbonyl groups in aldehydes and ketones?

  The polar nature of the C=O bond leads to dipole-dipole interactions in aldehydes and ketones.
• How do carboxylic acids behave in terms of acidity?

  Carboxylic acids are typically weak acids that partially dissociate into H⁺ and RCOO^- in neutral aqueous solution.
• What are the physical properties of carboxylic acids?

  • Solubility: Smaller carboxylic acids (1 to 5 carbons) are soluble in water; larger acids are less soluble.
  • **Boiling Point**: Carboxylic acids have higher boiling points than water due to dimer formation.
• What is the general formula and functional group of acyl chlorides?

  The general formula for acyl chlorides is RCOCl, and the functional group is a carbon-oxygen double bond attached to a hydrocarbon group.
• What are esters and how are they formed?

  • **Esters**: Organic compounds that react with water to produce alcohols and acids.
  • Formation: Prepared by the reaction of carboxylic acids and alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst (esterification).
• What are the physical properties of simple esters?

  • **Boiling Points**: Similar to aldehydes and ketones with the same number of carbon atoms.
  • **Interactions**: Polar molecules with dipole-dipole interactions but do not form hydrogen bonds.
• What are the types of anhydrides?

  • **Anhydrides**: Organic compounds with two acyl groups bound to the same oxygen atom.
  • Types: Derived from the same carboxylic acid.