Stomach

• What are the normal protective mechanisms in the stomach?

  Bicarbonate, mucous layer, and prostaglandins
• How are prostaglandins produced in the stomach?

  They are created from arachidonic acid metabolism by the enzyme cyclooxygenase.
• What is the role of N cells in the stomach?

  N cells inhibit cyclooxygenase, reducing prostaglandin synthesis.
• What effect do steroids have on prostaglandin synthesis?

  Steroids inhibit the formation of phospholipids, reducing prostaglandin synthesis.
• How do steroids contribute to ulcer formation in the stomach?

  They decrease epithelial turnover and inhibit prostaglandin synthesis, predisposing to ulcers.
• What are some causes of gastric or abomasal ulceration?

  Renal disease, mast cell tumors, penetrating foreign bodies, and excessive gastric acid.
• How does renal disease contribute to ulceration?

  It leads to high levels of uric acid in the blood, causing vasculitis and ulceration.
• What is Zollinger-Ellison syndrome?

  It is a condition caused by mast cell tumors that release histamine, leading to increased acid secretion.
• What happens to small ulcers in the stomach?

  They may granulate, form granulation tissue, and heal with a scar.
• What are the potential complications of large ulcers?

  They can bleed, become infected, or perforate leading to peritonitis.
• What are some causes of ulcers in cattle?

  Excessive rotation, lymphoma, and viral diseases.
• How does hyperkeratosis develop in the esophagus of pigs?

  It develops due to the action of finely ground rations, high copper, and low protein diets.
• What is the relationship between hyperkeratosis and ulcer formation in pigs?


  Hyperkeratosis leads to cracks in the epithelium, which can become infected and form ulcers.
• What are the main causes of gastric ulcers in horses?

  NSAIDs, foreign bodies, and mast cell tumors.
• How do NSAIDs contribute to gastric ulcers in horses?

  They inhibit prostaglandin synthesis, reducing mucosal protection.
• What is the effect of parasitic infections on gastric health in ruminants?

  Parasitic infections can lead to anemia and ulcerative gastritis.
• What are the symptoms of gastric ulcers in animals?

  Symptoms include vomiting, hematemesis, and melena.
• What is the significance of increased pepsinogen levels in the blood?

  Increased pepsinogen levels indicate gastric mucosal damage or ulceration.
• How do neoplasms affect the stomach?

  Neoplasms can cause ulcers, bleeding, and changes in gastric function.
• What type of tumors are commonly found in the stomach of cats?

  Lymphoma and gastric adenocarcinomas.
• What is the appearance of gastric adenocarcinomas?

  They often have a napkin clamp appearance due to associated fibrosis.
• What is the relationship between hypoproteinemia and bottle jaw in animals?

  Hypoproteinemia leads to edema, resulting in bottle jaw formation.
• What are the common parasites affecting the stomach in pigs?

  Higher strongyles and Trichostrongylus.
• How do gastric ulcers in horses differ from those in other animals?

  They can occur in both glandular and squamous areas of the stomach.
• What is the impact of gastric ulcers on the overall health of an animal?

  Gastric ulcers can lead to severe complications, including hemorrhage and anemia.
• What is the role of glucocorticoids in gastric health?

  They inhibit prostaglandin synthesis, increasing the risk of ulcers.
• What is the significance of the Moroccan leather appearance in ruminants?

  It indicates the presence of parasitic infections and associated epithelial hyperplasia.
• How do gastric ulcers affect the digestive process in animals?

  They can disrupt normal digestion and lead to complications like bleeding and infection.
• What is the common treatment for gastric ulcers in animals?

  Common treatments include medications to reduce acid production and protect the gastric lining.
• How does the presence of foreign bodies contribute to gastric ulcers?


  Foreign bodies can cause physical damage to the stomach lining, leading to ulceration.
• What is the relationship between dietary factors and gastric ulceration?

  Certain diets can predispose animals to gastric ulcers by affecting mucosal integrity.
• What is atresia in the context of the oesophagus?

  No lumen (congenital)
• What causes hyperkeratosis?

  Vitamin A deficiency and chlorinated naphthalene poisoning
• What is stenosis?

  Scar tissue or external pressure causing narrowing
• What are some causes of obstruction in the oesophagus?

  Stenosis, foreign body, bloat, and intussusception
• What are the conditions associated with oesophageal dilation (megaoesophagus)?

  • Secondary to stenosis (e.g., Spirocerca granuloma)
  • Achalasia (congenital in GSD)
  • Loss of peristalsis (idiopathic denervation)
  • Vagal nerve damage
  • Other causes: polymyositis, lead/thallium toxicity
• What is achalasia in the context of the oesophagus?

  A condition characterized by loss of peristalsis
• Which parasite is associated with megaoesophagus?

  Trypanosoma cruzi
• What is the effect of thymoma on the oesophagus?

  It can lead to myasthenia gravis
• What happens when there is vagal nerve damage?

  It can lead to paralysis of the oesophagus