physical examination

• What should be done to the site of the experiment before starting?

  The site of the experiment should be sterilized.
• What must a medical technologist wear before the experiment?

  Proper personal protective equipment.
• What does a medical technologist check upon receiving a urine specimen?

  If the urine container is properly labeled and records the information indicated.
• What materials are needed for urine analysis?

  • Urine (freshly voided or random specimen, preferably first morning)
  • Urine container
  • Test tube
  • White paper
  • Any printed material
• How should the volume of a urine specimen be recorded?


  Record the volume as approximate.
• What color descriptions should be noted for a urine specimen?

  Pale, light or dark yellow, light or dark amber, greenish, brownish, etc.
• How should the transparency of urine be recorded?

  As clear, hazy, cloudy, turbid, milky, or with sediment.
• What are the possible odors of urine that should be determined?

  Aromatic or ammonia-like.
• What should a medical technologist do before leaving the laboratory?

  • Return materials, slides, and microscopes
  • Dispose of wastes and disinfect the area
  • Remove PPE properly without exposing it outside the laboratory
• How should urine color be examined?

  Under a good light source and against a white background.
• What pigment gives urine its yellowish color?

  Urochrome.
• What does clear urine indicate?

  • Good hydration
  • Overhydration
  • Mild dehydration
• What does pale yellow urine indicate?

  • Good hydration
  • Mild dehydration
• What does bright yellow urine indicate?

  • Mild or moderate dehydration
  • Taking vitamin supplements
• What does orange or amber urine indicate?


  • Moderate or severe dehydration
• What does tea-colored urine indicate?

  • Severe dehydration
  • Burned patients
• What color changes can occur with commonly used drugs?

  • Levodopa: Cola-colored
  • Mepacrine: Yellow
  • Methyldopa: Green-brown
  • Metronidazole: Darkening, reddish brown
  • Phenazopyridine: Orange-red
  • Rifampin: Bright orange-red
  • Riboflavin: Bright yellow
• What is the normal range of urine volume in 24 hours?


  600 mL to 2000 mL.
• What is the average urine volume in 24 hours?


  1200 to 1500 mL.
• What is the volume required for routine urinalysis?


  10-15 mL (average 12 mL).
• What is the volume required for drug testing?

  20-45 mL (excess for confirmatory).
• What is oliguria?

  A decrease in urine output.
• What state does the body enter during oliguria?

  A state of body dehydration.
• What are the ranges for oliguria in different age groups?


  • Infants: < 1 mL/kg/hr
  • Children: < 0.5 mL/kg/hr
  • Adults: < 400 mL/day or < 500 mL/24 hrs
• What are some causes of oliguria?

  • Decreased renal blood flow
  • Dehydration/water deprivation
  • Shock
  • Decreased cardiac output (hypotension)
  • Renal disease
  • Urinary tract obstruction
  • Renal tubular dysfunction
  • End-stage renal disease
  • Nephrotic syndrome
  • Edema
• What is anuria?

  Cessation of urine flow.
• What may cause anuria?

  Serious damage to the kidneys or a decrease in blood flow to the kidneys.
• According to Graff’s textbook, what is considered anuria?

  Less than 100 mL per day.
• What are some causes of anuria?

  • Acute renal failure
  • Ischemic causes (shock, heart failure)
  • Nephrotoxic causes (drugs, toxic agents)
  • Urinary tract obstruction (tumor, kidney stones)
  • Hemolytic transfusion
• What is polyuria?

  An increase in daily urine volume.
• What are the ranges for polyuria in adults and children?

  • Adults: > 2.5 L/day (Henry’s) or > 2000 mL/24 hours (Strasinger)
  • Children: 2.5–3 mL/kg/day
• What conditions is polyuria often associated with?

  Diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus.
• What can artificially induce polyuria?

  • Diuretics
  • Caffeine
  • Alcohol
• What are some causes of polyuria?

  • Diabetes mellitus (glucose, high SG)
  • Drugs (diuretic therapy, caffeine, alcohol)
  • Excessive fluid intake (IV administration, compulsive water intake)
  • Diabetes insipidus (normal SG)
  • Renal disease
  • Drugs (lithium)
• What is nocturia?

  An increase in the nocturnal excretion of urine.
• What is the range for nocturia?

  Greater than 500 mL/night.
• What are some causes of nocturia?

  • Pregnancy
  • Chronic progressive renal failure
• How should urine clarity be determined?

  • Thoroughly mix the specimen
  • Examine in front of a light source
  • View through printed materials
• What are the clarity terms for urine?

  • Clear: No visible particulates, transparent
  • Hazy: Few particulates, print easily seen through urine
  • Cloudy: Many particulates, print blurred through urine
  • Turbid: Print cannot be seen through urine
  • Milky: May precipitate or be clotted
• What is the normal odor of urine?

  Aromatic, caused by urea.