Biopsychology

• What are the two main components of the nervous system?


  The brain and the spinal cord
• What is the role of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?


  It relays messages from the environment to the CNS and from the CNS to effectors
• What are the two subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system?

  The autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system
• What functions does the autonomic nervous system control?


  Involuntary, vital functions of the body, such as heart rates and breathing rates
• What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?


  The sympathetic and parasympathetic branches
• How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches work together?


  They work as an antagonistic pair during the 'rest and digest' response
• What physiological changes does the sympathetic nervous system induce?


  Increases heart rate, breathing rate, causes vasoconstriction and pupil dilation
• What physiological changes does the parasympathetic nervous system induce?


  Decreases heart rate, breathing rates, causes vasodilation and pupil constriction
• What is the main function of the endocrine system?


  It is the main chemical messenger system of the body
• What is the role of the pituitary gland?


  It controls the release of hormones from all other glands in the body
• What hormone does the thyroid release and what is its effect?

  Thyroxine, which increases heart rate
• What hormone does the adrenal gland release and what is its role?


  Adrenaline, which creates physiological arousal for the fight or flight response
• What are the steps of the fight or flight response?


  1. The body senses a stressor.
  2. Information is sent to the hypothalamus.
  3. Adrenaline is released from the adrenal medulla.
  4. Physiological responses occur (e.g., increased heart rate).
  5. Once the threat is gone, the parasympathetic branch is activated.
• What is synaptic transmission?


  A method of neurons communicating with each other
• What are the steps of synaptic transmission?

  1. Action potential arrives at the presynaptic membrane.
  2. Calcium ion channels open, causing depolarization.
  3. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft.
  4. Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
  5. Action potential is transmitted along the next neuron.
• What effect do inhibitory neurotransmitters have?


  They reduce the potential difference across the postsynaptic membrane
• What effect do excitatory neurotransmitters have?

  They increase the potential difference across the axon terminal
• What does localisation theory suggest?


  Certain areas of the brain are responsible for specific processes and behaviours
• What is the function of the motor area in the brain?


  It regulates and coordinates movements
• What happens if there is damage to the motor area?


  It results in an inability to control voluntary fine motor movements
• Where is the auditory area located?


  In the temporal lobe on the superior temporal gyrus
• What is the consequence of damage to the auditory area?


  It causes hearing loss and can lead to Wernicke's aphasia
• What is the function of the visual area?

  It processes visual information
• What does the somatosensory area process?


  Information associated with the senses such as touch, heat, and pressure
• What happens if there is damage to the somatosensory area?


  It results in a loss of ability to denote sensitivity to particular bodily areas
• What is Wernicke's area responsible for?


  Speech comprehension
• What happens if Wernicke's area is damaged?


  It results in Wernicke's aphasia, characterized by nonsensical speech
• What is Broca's area responsible for?


  Speech production
• What happens if Broca's area is damaged?


  It results in Broca's aphasia, characterized by difficulty forming sentences
• Which hemisphere of the brain is associated with language production and comprehension?


  The left hemisphere
• What supporting evidence exists for localisation of brain function?

  • Tulving et al. found semantic memories recalled from the left prefrontal cortex.
  • Petersen et al. showed Wernicke's area is activated for listening tasks.
  • Broca's area is activated for reading tasks.
• What does the case study of Phineas Gage demonstrate?


  • Damage to the prefrontal cortex affects decision making and emotion processing.
  • Shows specific brain areas are responsible for certain functions.
• What is the contradictory theory to localisation theory?


  • Holistic view suggests multiple brain areas are activated for functions.
  • Example: Rats with removed cortices showed no specific area for learning tasks.
• What evidence supports the link between brain areas and OCD symptoms?

  Dougherty et al. found that cingulotomy improved symptoms in 32% of OCD patients
• What is plasticity in the context of the brain?


  • The brain's ability to adapt and change in response to trauma and learning.
  • Neuroplasticity can lead to both positive and negative outcomes.
• What did Maguire et al. find regarding taxi drivers and brain structure?


  Taxi drivers had larger grey matter volume in the mid-posterior hippocampi
• What is functional recovery in the brain?


  It is the ability of the brain to transfer functions from damaged areas to healthy areas
• What mechanisms enable functional recovery?

  Law of equipotentiality, axonal sprouting, reformation of blood vessels, and recruiting homologous areas
• What is an example of negative plasticity?


  Phantom limb syndrome caused by cortical reorganization
• What is an example of positive plasticity?


  Jodi Miller's ability to control her body after right hemisphere removal