ETHICS M2

• Zeno first coined the term logic.
• For Aristotle, logic is the instrument for gaining knowledge or the tool of correct thinking.
• Reasoning is a process in which conclusion is arrived at and affirmed on the basis of one or more propositions assumed or accepted.
• Proposition is a logical term which refers to something true or false.
• Logicians sometimes use the terms proposition and statement interchangeably.
• Constative is utterance whose meaning can be affirmed (true)or denied (false).
• Performative is an utterance whose meaning can be sincere orinsincere or for lack of better term, “happy or unhappy”.
• Argument is simply a piece of reasoning expressed in words or symbols.
• Conclusion-indicators are words or phrases that tell us that what is about to follow is the conclusion.
• Deductive - An argument that begins with general statement and ends with less general or particular statement.
• Inductive - Reasoning which begins with particular and ends with general.
• Abductive is a form of logical inference that goes from observation to a hypothesis that accounts for the reliable data (observation) and seeks to explain relevant evidence. Guessing.
• Principle of Identity - Asserts that if any statement is true, then it is true.
• Principle of Noncontradiction - Asserts that no statement can be both true and false. It is self-contradictory.
• Principle of Excluded Middle - Asserts that every statement is either true or false.
• Subject - is that about which something is denied or affirmed.
• Predicate- that which is affirmed or denied of the subject.
• Copula- verb to be
• Singular - When the subject of a proposition expresses one individual or group and designates that individual or group definitely.
• Particular - When the subject of a proposition expresses only a part of the extension of a universal concept.
• Universal - If it stands for each of the subjects to which it can be applied, that is, if it stands for each one of an unlimited class of subjects.
• Affirmative - When the copula joins, unites, or copulates the predicate with the subject.
• Negative - When the copulate separates, or divides, the predicate from the subject.
• FALLACY - any error in reasoning. A type of argument that seems to be correct but contains a mistake in reasoning.
• FORMAL FALLACY - a pattern of mistake that appears in deductive arguments of certain special form.
• INFORMAL FALLACY - Arises from confusion concerning the content of the language used. Because language is slippery and imprecise.
• Fallacies of relevance - Most numerous and most frequently encountered; The premises of the argument are simply not relevant to the conclusion;
• Fallacies of relevance - They are made to appear to be relevant, they may deceive. No real connection between premises and the conclusion of an argument.
• Appeal to populace (Argumentum ad Populum) - Arousing the feelings of the multitude.
• Appeal to Populace (Argumentum ad Populum) - Others called it bandwagon fallacy (to do what others do because so many others are doing it).
• Appeal to Emotion - Fallacy committed when the support offered for conclusion is emotions-fear, envy, pity.
• Red Herring - A fallacy in which attention is deliberately deflected away from the issue under discussion. Effectiveness lies in distraction. Some distraction is used to confuse or mislead.
• Strawman - Committed when the position of one’s opponent is misrepresented and that distorted position is made the object of attack.
• Argumentum ad Hominem (Argument against the Person) - An informal fallacy committed when, rather than attacking the substance of some position, one attacks the person of its advocate, either abusively or as a consequence of his or her special circumstances.
• Poisoning the well - A variety of abusive ad hominem argument in which continued rational exchange is undermined by attacking the good faith or intellectual honesty of the opponent.
• Appeal to Force - literally means appeal to the stick. A fallacy in which the argument relies upon an open or veiled threat of force.
• Missing the Point - A fallacy committed when one refutes, not the thesis of one’s interlocutor is advancing, but some different thesis that one mistakenly imputes to him or her. A fallacy in which the premises support a different conclusion from one that is proposed.
• Ad Hominem - Treating personal circumstances as the premise of an opposing argument.