Chem A Level

• What is the general formula for esters?


  The general formula for esters is R-COO-R', where R and R' are alkyl groups.
• What functional group do esters contain?


  Esters contain a carbonyl group (C=O) bonded to an oxygen atom.
• What are the key points defining esters?


  • Organic compounds
  • Derived from carboxylic acids
  • Contain a carbonyl group (C=O) bonded to an oxygen atom
  • Have a characteristic fruity odour
• What is esterification?


  Esterification is the process of forming an ester from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst.
• What are the reactants in the esterification process?


  The reactants in the esterification process are a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.
• What is the role of the catalyst in esterification?


  The catalyst, usually concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), speeds up the esterification reaction.
• What are the products of esterification?


  The products of esterification are an ester and water.
• What is the general equation for esterification?


  The general equation for esterification is R-COOH + R'-OH ⇌ R-COO-R' + H₂O.
• What is the ester produced when ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol?


  The ester produced is CH₃COOCH₂CH₃.
• What is the solubility of esters in water?


  Esters are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
• What is the polarity of esters compared to carboxylic acids?


  Esters are less polar than carboxylic acids.
• Reduction in organic chemistry


  Whenever a carbon forms a bond with a less electronegative element, normally Hydrogen
• Oxidation in organic chemistry

  Whenever a carbon forms a bond with a more electronegative element, normally Oxygen
• What are amines derived from?

  Ammonia ($\text{NH}_3$)
• What is the general formula for primary amines?

  $\text{RNH}_2$
• What is the general structure of amines based on ammonia?


  Amines have a structure where one or more H atoms are replaced by R groups.
• What is the bond angle in amines compared to ammonia?


  It is slightly larger than in ammonia (around 108°).
• What shape do amines have due to the lone pair on nitrogen?


  A pyramidal shape.
• How are amines classified?

  Based on the number of alkyl or aryl groups attached to the nitrogen atom.
• What type of bonding can both amines and alcohols form?

  Hydrogen bonds
• How do amines act in acid-base reactions?

  Amines act as Brønsted-Lowry bases, accepting protons
• What is the general reaction for the acylation of a primary amine?

  $\text{R-NH}_2 +$$\text{CH}_3\text{COCl} \rightarrow \text{R-NHCOCH}_3 +$$\text{HCl}$
• What is Hofmann elimination in relation to quaternary ammonium hydroxides?


  Hofmann elimination involves the breakdown of quaternary ammonium hydroxides to form alkenes
• What are the key reactions of amines and their significance?

  • Acid-Base Reactions: Amines accept protons to form ammonium salts.
  • Alkylation: Amines can be converted to secondary or tertiary amines.
  • Acylation: Amines react with acyl chlorides to form amides.
  • Reduction: Primary amines can be formed from nitriles or nitro compounds.
  • Hofmann Elimination: Quaternary ammonium hydroxides can form alkenes.
• What is the general formula for nitrile groups?


  • C≡N
• What characterizes nitriles in terms of bonding?


  They have a triple bond between carbon and nitrogen
• What is the derivative of hydrogen cyanide?


  Nitriles
• What are the key structural characteristics of nitrile groups?


  • Triple bond: One σ bond and two π bonds
  • Linear geometry with a bond angle of 180°
  • Short bond length compared to C-N single bonds
  • High electron density due to the triple bond
• What is the bond angle in the C≡N portion of a nitrile group?


  180°
• What is the simplest nitrile?


  Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
• What does R represent in the general formula R-C≡N?


  Any alkyl or aryl group
• What is the molecular formula of benzene?


  $\text{C}_6\text{H}_6$