Antarctica

• What are the global commons?


  Resources, domains, or areas that lie outside of the political reach of any one nation state. Including:

  -the high sees

  -the atmosphere

  -outer space

  -antarctica
• Other possible global commons

  -the biosphere

  -the cybersphere

  -rivers and transboundary waters
• The tragedy of the Commons


  Conflict for resources between individual interests and the common good (society). Examples of global commons exploitation include pollution of the oceans and atmosphere (SE Asian haze).
• How can the high seas be protected?

  UN Conservation On the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982

  -whaling forbidden but some countries still participate in whaling such as Japan, Iceland and Norway

  -older ships forced to retire as they are more polluting

  -landlocked states have access to the worlds oceans
• How can the atmosphere be protected?

  Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer

  -1987 ban on CFC containing aerosols and fridges

  Climate change:

  -1992 UN Earth Summit in Rio

  -1997 Kyoto Protocol

  -2015 Paris Agreement (US pulled out under Donald Trump)

  -COP yearly climate change meetings

  Less effective that Montreal Protocol. Pledges cannot be enforced. Some countries have sceptic governments around climate change.
• How can outer space be protected?

  1979 Moon Treaty

  -bans military activity

  -moon should benefit all states and peoples

  Outer Space Treaty 1967

  -banned certain military activities e.g. deployment of mass destruction weapons

  -established state responsibility for its space projectiles and components (Russia)

  -urged protection of space

  -open inspection of each states activities
• Location

  -mostly south of the Antarctic Circle (>60° south of the equator)

  -exceptions to this being the East Antarctic coastline and Antarctic peninsula

  -surrounded by Southern Ocean

  -5th largest continent (14million km^2)
• Southern Ocean


  -beyond 60° south of the equator

  -boundary coincides with Antarctic Treaty Limit
• What is the Antarctic Convergence Zone?


  ~60° latitude where cold northward flowing waters from the Antarctic meet with warmer Sub-Antarctic waters
• How wide is the Antarctic Convergence Zone?


  32-48km wide
• What currents meet at the Antarctic Convergence Zone?


  easterly and westerly flowing currents meet at the Antarctic Convergence Zone
• What does the Antarctic Convergence Zone separate?


  Two distinct hydrological regions, areas of distinct climate, and areas of distinct wildlife.
• What is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current?


  an ocean current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica
• What is the Antarctic Divergence?


  where the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (clockwise) meets the east wind drift (anticlockwise)
• Global Thermohaline Circulation


  -warmer waters move towards colder waters towards the poles

  -salty water moves towards less salty water at the poles and equator
• Climate


  -contains 90% of all ice on Earth

  -very little water available, inland <166mm/year (desert)

  -very fragile ecosystem that is easily damaged and takes a long time to recover
• Biodiversity


  -no large animals that permanently live on land in Antarctica

  -Antarctic hairgrass, Antarctic pearlwort, mosses, and lichens

  -Antarctic midge

  -phytoplankton and zooplankton

  -krill, Antarctic toothfish, Antarctic cod, penguins, blue whales
• Physical Geography


  covered in two thick ice sheets created by slow accumulation of a small input of snow and frost which exceeds ablation rates (melting) over a long time
• Dry Valleys


  found in high altitude areas of extreme aridity
• Nuntaks


  Transantarctic mountain peaks, high winds prevent accumulation of snow
• Lowest ever temperature

  -89°C (coldest recorded on Earth)
• Common wind speeds

  300km/h
• Why is tourism a threat to Antarctica?


  -increases shipping and air travel resulting in water and air pollution

  -risk of boats grounding or hitting icebergs which can cause fuel spills

  -tourists can disturb breeding colonies of birds, trample vegetation, and litter. Decomposition rates in the cold are slow.

  -non-native species could be introduced
• How many tourists travelled to Antarctica in 2023?


  106,000, the most Antarctica have received.
• Why are fishing and whaling threats to Antarctica?


  -overfishing threatens many species such as Antarctic toothfish

  -krill are the most fished for krill oil (200,000 tonnes in 2013). There is a symbiotic loop relationship between krill, blue whales and phytoplankton

  -blue whale population decreased to ~2000 in the 1960s, now at ~5000

  -krill capture equivalent the carbon emissions of 35 million cars a year
• Why is climate change a threat to Antarctica?


  -warmed by 3°C over the past 5 decades which is one of the fastest temperature rises on Earth

  -species of penguin adapted to sea ice rather than open sea have declined

  -krill eat algae and bacteria found in the ice sheet (impacts entire food web)

  -if ice shelves melt the West Antarctica ice sheet could slip and melt
• Why is ocean acidification a threat to Antarctica?


  -globally ocean pH has dropped from 8.2 before the industrial era to 8.1 today

  -hydrogen ions replace carbonate ions in calcium carbonate which makes up the shell of shellfish

  -a specific pH is needed for optimum enzyme activity
• Why would the search for minerals be a threat to Antarctica?


  -rare, easy to reach mineral deposits that are economically viable but covered in moving ice streams and glaciers

  -Environment Protocol and Antarctic Treaty bans mining but ban expires 2028 and future demand will put pressure on resources
• Why is scientific research carried out in Antarctica?


  -unique ecosystem with extremophile organisms

  -observing space and the universe

  -low human activity

  -climate data record within the ice and soil

  -best place to find meteorites

  -researching how the Antarctic atmosphere and Southern Ocean affects the rest of the world
• Issues with scientific research in Antarctica


  -vehicle exhausts release harmful particulates into the atmosphere

  -sewage takes a long time to break down due to cold climate

  -construction of buildings and runways

  -storage of fuel is a fire risk

  -food and waste can pollute the environment
• How do scientists mitigate their impact of research in Antarctica?


  -discharge of oil, bulk chemicals, or rubbish is prohibited

  -sewage is passed through a biological treatment plant

  -food waste is shredded and passed through a mesh

  -other waste is incinerated on board, shredded, compacted or disposed of at the port
• The Lindblad Plan


  -carbon neutral operation

  -no single use plastics

  -sustainable food sourcing

  -support for scientific research

  -education programmes

  -conservation initiatives
• International Association of Antarctic Tour Operations (IAATO)


  -visitor guidelines

  -landing restrictions

  -vessel regulations

  -activity restrictions

  -environmental monitoring and reporting

  -educational programs
• Antarctic Treaty System


  -Antarctic Treaty 1959

  -Madrid Protocol 1991

  -Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) 1982

  Regulated in Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings
• Antarctic Treaty 1959


  -no military use

  -nuclear free zone

  -freedom of scientific investigation and exchange of scientific plans and data

  -53 countries
• Antarctic Treaty 1959 Evaluation


  -effective

  -brought nations together

  -favoured research over politics

  -no protection of the oceans or environment

  -countries can choose not to sign

  -all decisions must be unanimous
• Madrid Protocol 1991


  -by the early 1990s pressure was building from groups wanting to exploit mineral resources under Antarctica

  -45 nations signed

  -only runs until 2048

  -bans all resource activity including exploration on the continental shelf

  -no removal or interference with flora and fauna

  -waste management

  -reduce marine pollution
• Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) 1982


  -research, monitoring, and conservation of the Southern Ocean

  -ecosystem monitoring program records changes and analyses effects of commercial fishing

  -Scientific Committee in the commission who provide advice and information
• CCAMLR 1982 Evaluation


  -very impactful, there has been a large reduction in sea bird mortality from thousands a year to almost zero in regulated areas

  -monitoring vulnerable marine ecosystems such as hydrothermal vents and cold corals
• International Whaling Commission (IWC) 1946 and The Moratorium 1982


  -catch limits

  -working with the Scientific Committee to research and study whaling

  -coordinating conservation work

  -providing funds for research and conservation

  -The Moratorium bans all commercial whaling however some countries still whale