Neural explanations

• What do neural explanations refer to?


  Explanations in terms of (dys)function of the brain and nervous system
• What is included in neural explanations?


  The activity of brain structures and neurotransmitters
• What percentage of the general US population has had a brain injury?

  1. 5%
• What percentage of individuals in US prisons have reported a brain injury?


  60%
• Where is the prefrontal cortex located?


  Above the eyebrows at the very front of the brain
• What did Raine (2004) find regarding murderers and psychopaths?


  They have reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex
• What is the role of the prefrontal cortex?


  Regulating emotion and controlling moral behaviour
• What is associated with lowered activity in the prefrontal cortex?


  Impulsiveness and loss of control
• What does the limbic system control?


  Emotions and motivations
• How do criminal psychopaths process emotions?


  They have problems processing emotions and empathy
• What is suggested about the limbic system in criminal psychopaths?


  A fault in their limbic system leads to lack of emotional reactions
• What can lack of emotional reactions lead to in criminal psychopaths?


  Planned and organised offending behaviour
• What did Raine (2009) find regarding psychopaths and the amygdala?


  Psychopaths had an 18% volume reduction in the amygdala
• What reduction in grey matter of the PFC did Raine (2009) find in people with anti-social personality disorder?


  11%
• What do case studies support regarding brain dysfunction?


  The link between brain dysfunction and offending/anti-social behaviour
• Who was Charles Whitman and what did he do?


  He shot 16 people at a university campus
• What was found in Charles Whitman's post mortem?


  He had a large tumour in the amygdala
• Who was Phineas Gage?


  A railway worker who had catastrophic brain damage
• What happened to Phineas Gage after his accident?


  He became a violent drunk despite recovering physically
• What does the prefrontal area do according to Phineas Gage's case?


  It keeps behaviour in check and moderates impulses
• What are mirror neurons?


  Neurons that fire in response to personal actions and actions of others
• How do mirror neurons relate to interpreting emotions?


  They allow us to interpret emotion in others
• How can mirror neurons affect criminality?


  If we do not experience someone else's emotion, we cannot empathise with them
• What is suggested about criminal types and mirror neurons?


  They can 'switch off' these mirror neurons
• What did Keysers et al. (2011) find regarding criminals and empathy?


  Criminals' mirror neurons activated only when asked to empathise
• What does the activation of mirror neurons suggest about criminals?


  They may have a neural 'switch' for empathy
• What is serotonin?


  A neurotransmitter that exerts a calming, inhibitory effect
• What effect does low serotonin have on behaviour?


  It removes the inhibitory effect, leading to impulsive behaviour
• What gene regulates the metabolism of serotonin?


  The MAOA gene
• What does animal research suggest about serotonin and aggression?


  Lowering serotonin increases aggression, while raising it reduces aggression
• What was found in aggressive dogs compared to a control group?

  Aggressive dogs had lower average serotonin levels
• What is a limitation of the research on serotonin and aggression?


  Much of the research has been conducted using non-human animals
• Why is the relevance of animal research on serotonin and aggression questioned?


  It measures aggression rather than offending behaviours