Cognitive explanations

• What do cognitive explanations focus on in relation to criminals?


  Cognitive explanations focus on how criminals think.
• What is the basic assumption of cognitive explanations regarding criminals and non-criminals?


  The basic assumption is that there must be a difference in the way a criminal thinks compared to a non-criminal.
• What are the three levels of moral development according to Kohlberg?


  • Pre-conventional morality
  • Conventional morality
  • Post-conventional morality
• What does the pre-conventional level of moral reasoning focus on?


  It focuses on consideration of self, such as punishment and potential gains.
• What is the reasoning behind committing a crime at the pre-conventional level?


  At this level, individuals think about whether they will be punished or what they will gain.
• What does the conventional level of moral reasoning emphasize?


  It emphasizes consideration of society and the approval of others.
• What is the reasoning behind committing a crime at the conventional level?


  Individuals consider whether their actions are legal and how significant others would view them.
• What does the post-conventional level of moral reasoning involve?


  It involves personal morality and whether an action is morally right according to one's conscience.
• How does Kohlberg's theory relate to offenders and their moral development?

  Offenders at a lower stage of moral development are more likely to commit crimes due to self-centered thinking.
• What age group did Kohlberg study for his research on moral dilemmas?


  Boys aged 7-16 years.
• What did Palmer and Hollin (1998) find in their comparison of moral reasoning between non-offenders and convicted offenders?


  They found that offenders showed less mature moral reasoning than the control group.
• What did Askhar and Kenny (2007) discover about the moral reasoning of juvenile sex offenders compared to non-sex offenders?


  Both groups had a pre-conventional level of moral reasoning in contexts related to their crimes.
• What does the research suggest about moral reasoning in different contexts for offenders?


  Moral reasoning varies by context, with offenders showing lower reasoning specific to their offending type.
• What is a limitation of the research on moral reasoning in predicting behavior?


  The research has low predictive validity, as responses to questionnaires do not guarantee behavior.
• What is a criticism of Kohlberg's theory regarding gender bias?


  Kohlberg's theory is based on data from boys only, which may not reflect how women think or behave.
• What did Gilligan (1982) propose regarding gender differences in moral development?


  Gilligan argued that women focus more on how actions affect others, while men focus on fairness and justice.
• What are cognitive distortions?

  Cognitive distortions are errors or biases in processing information leading to faulty thinking.
• How do cognitive distortions affect criminals' interpretations of others' behavior?


  Criminals may misinterpret others' behavior and justify their own actions in a distorted way.
• What is hostile attribution bias?


  Hostile attribution bias is the tendency to misinterpret others' actions as confrontational.
• How can hostile attribution bias lead to violence?


  It can trigger a disproportionate, often violent response to perceived confrontational cues.
• What did Schonenberg and Justye (2014) find regarding violent offenders and emotional expressions?


  Violent offenders were more likely to perceive ambiguous facial expressions as angry and hostile.
• What link did Holtzworth-Munroe and Hutchinson (1993) find between hostile attribution bias and domestic violence?


  They found that violent men were more likely to perceive women's behavior as negative and hostile.
• What is minimalisation in the context of cognitive distortions?


  Minimalisation is downplaying criminal behavior and rationalizing actions through self-deception.
• How might a burglar rationalize their crime through minimalisation?


  A burglar might think that stealing from a wealthy family will have little effect on their lives.
• What did Kennedy and Grubin (1992) find regarding offenders' accounts of their offenses?


  The majority of offenders tried to excuse their behavior by blaming someone else, often the victim.
• What is a limitation of minimalisation in explaining criminal behavior?


  Minimalisation is more strongly related to sex crimes than to other types of crimes.
• What is a criticism of cognitive explanations of criminal behavior?


  Cognitive explanations are often descriptive rather than explanatory and do not address why crimes are committed.
• How might minimalisation function after a crime has been committed?


  Minimalisation may serve as a coping strategy rather than an explanation for why the crime occurred.