Features of science

• Define Objectivity

  Scientists must approach their investigations in an unbiased and objective way. Not allowing their personal opinions and biases to affect the way they collect or interpret their data about participants behaviour
• How do you improve objectivity

  • Use quantitative and empirical data
  • Use operationalised variables as they aren't open to interpretation
  • Use the double blind method to remove investigator effects and demand characteristics
  • Train interviewers to use the same tone, questions, behaviour etc or use the same interviewer
• Define the Empirical Method

  Gathering observable data. Empirical means based on direct sensory experience e.g. Pavlov's dogs collecting saliva
• What does empirical data allow for

  • Objectivity because observable data is open to less biased interpretation
  • Replication as observable data is easily repeated and gathered
• Define replicability/reliability 


  The extent to which a study can be easily repeated and produce the same results.
• Replicability in relation to scientific theory 


  To trust a scientific theory, the findings from the theory must be consistent and consistent under different circumstances. Replication of findings gives greater confidence in findings and is important in establishing the validity of findings. If findings are replicable it helps us expand the generalisabilty e.g. population validity and ecological validity
• How do you test replicability

  • Standardised procedure
  • Operationalised variables
  • Control over variables
• Define a theory


  A theory is a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular behaviour and/or evidence
• How do you construct and test a theory

  • Observe a phenomenon in the world
  • Create a theory based on what was observed
  • Use the theory to make predictions
• What does Popper argue about scientific theories

  Popper argues that scientific theories should allow for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false. To be proven wrong, a theory needs to be based on measurable concepts and testable hypotheses. If it's not testable/measurable then the theory is considered a pseudo science.
• Falsifiability - what about theories that survive attempts to be proven wrong

  Theories which survive most attempts to be proven wrong are the strongest but aren't necessarily true. There must always be a possibility that a theory is false (null hypothesis). If theories are proven wrong they're either abandoned or refined to be tested further
• What is hypothesis testing

  A scientific theory will make precise predictions that allow for hypothesis testing. (Types of hypothesis - alternate, null hypothesis - experimental, correlational) A good hypothesis needs an operationalised IV and DV.
• How is a theory strengthened or weakened

  Based on the results of a scientific investigation, a theory can be strengthened or weakened
• Define paradigm

  A paradigm is a set of shared assumptions/beliefs about how behaviour/thought is studied/explained. It is accepted by the majority of scientists in that particular field of study e.g. behaviourism - beliefs of tabula rasa, all beh is learnt from exp
• Define paradigm shift

  A paradigm shift is when there is a change in paradigm and a shared set of assumptions change from one way of thinking to another.
• Where do paradigm shifts come from


  As more evidence accumulates over time to suggest the current paradigm is either invalid or inadequate, scientists in a field collectively change their way of thinking (Kuhn)