forensics

• what is meant by the top-down approach

  profilers start with a pre-established typology and work down in order to assign offenders to one of two categories based on witness accounts and evidence from the crime scene
• how did the FBI begin offender profiling

  In 1974, the behavioural science unit of the FBI conducted in-depth interviews on 36 sexually motivated murders (Bundy) and concluded that offenders could be categorised into 2 distinct categories. This could then be applied to future situations by matching the data from a crime scene with the characteristics of one category in order to predict what other characteristics the perpetrator likely has
• organised and disorganised typologies

  the organised and disorganised typologies are based on the idea that serious offenders have certain signature ways of working (MO) and these generally correlate with a particular set of social and psychological characteristics
• organised crime

  • shows evidence of planning the crime (victim is targeted reflecting killer's type)
  • maintain high degree of control (detached surgical precision + little evidence)
  • above-average intelligence
  • skilled profession
  • socially + sexually competent
• disorganised crime

  • shows little evidence of planning (crime scene highlights spontaneous act)
  • body usually still at the scene + very little control by offender
  • low IQ
  • unemployed
  • history of sexual and failed relationships
• FBI steps to creating a profile

  1. Data Assimilation - the profiler reviews the evidence (crime scene photos, pathology and witness reports)
  2. Crime Scene Classification - organised or disorganised
  3. Crime Reconstruction - hypothesis of events and behaviour of the victim
  4. Profile Generation - hypothesis of likely offender (demographic background, physical charcteristics etc)
• A03 Top-down approach (lack of theoretical foundation)

  • there is a lack of theoretical foundation to this approach
  • Canter (2004) argues the use of self report data (interviews of serial killers) is not sensible when conducting a classification system on typologies as it often relies on anecdotal evidence rather than robust research
  • this therefore reduces the credibiity and validity of the approach as a whole
• A03 Top-down approach (research support)

  • a strength of the top-down approach is that it can be adapted to other crimes
  • Meketa (2017) reported that the top-down approach has been recently applied to burgulary leading to 85% rise in solved cases
  • organised + disorganised remained adding interpersonal + opportunistic typology
  • this suggests the approach has a wider application than originally assumed
• A03 Top-down approach (overly simplistic)

  • another limitation is that the distinctions made are overly simplistic
  • it's likely many offenders won't fit neatly into either category as their behaviour is not mutally exclusive
  • Godwin (2002) asked 'how would police classify a killer with high intelligence who commits a spontaneous crime?
  • Holmes (1989) suggested 4 types of serial killers
  • their conflicting typokogy versions make it difficult to predict their characteristics + suggest it may lead to inaccurate profiling
• A03 top-down approach (not applicable to all crimes)

  • not applicable to all types of crimes
  • top-down profiling is best suited to crime scenes that reveal important details about the suspect (rape, arson, cult killings) therefore, crimes involve sadistic torture, dissection and fantasies
  • more common offences byrglary do not led themselves to profiling because the resulting crime scene reveals very little about the offender
  • this means, at best, it's a limited approach to identifying a crime
• bottom-up approach

  profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics, motivations and social background of the offender.
• investigative psychology

  a form of bottom-up profiling that matches details from the crime scene with statistical analysis of typical offender behaviour patterns based on psychological theory.
• crime mapping

  location of linked crime scenes are used to make inferences about the likely home/base of an offender
• outline circle theory (maraduder+commuter)

  Canter + Larkin (1993) proposed 2 models of offending behaviour

  • marauder - safer, unfamiliar paths hold meaning
  • commuter - distinct between personal + work
• distinguish between morphology and propinquity

  • propinquity - the probability of the crime location reduced as the distance from the offender's home increases 
  • morphology - relates to structure whereas propinquity relates to closeness
• 5 principles of a profile (Canter)

  1. interpersonal coherence - their behaviour during the crime reflects their behaviour in real life
  2. time + place significance - to be in control, offenders pick locations familiar to them at times that are convenient
  3. criminal characteristics - patterns in their behaviour help categorise them into a type
  4. criminal career - how many crimes have previously been committed
  5. forensic awareness -evidence from the scene reveals if they have previously been in contact with the police therefore have knowledge of the investigative process
• A03 bottom-up approach (supporting evidence)

  • evidence supports investigating psychology
  • Canter and Heritage (1990) used a content analysis to compare behavioural characteristics identified in the offenders in 66 cases of sexual assault
  • found a significant correlation between behaviours shown by many different offenders
  • this suggests that statistics can be used to inform theories developed about offences in different cases
• A03 bottom-up approach (murder cases disposal sites)

  • Lundrigan and Canter (2001) collected information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the USA
  • smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of the killers he location of each body disposal site was in a different direction from previous sites (centre of gravity)
  • the offender base was invariably located in the centre. the effect was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances
  • this supports canter's claim that spatial info is a key factor in determining the base of an offender
• A03 bottom-up approach (mixed results for profiling)

  • there have been significant failures in using the bottom-up approach and studies examining the effectiveness of offender profiling produced mixed results
  • Copson (1995) surveyed 48 police forces + found the advice useful in 83% of cases but only 3% led to accurate identification
  • Kocsis (2002) found that chemistry students produced more accurate profiles on a solved murder case than detective
  • suggests offender profiling lacks practical effectiveness limiting its real world application
• A03 bottom-up approach (can be applied to a range of crimes)

  • it can be applied to a wide range of offences
  • unlike the top-down approach, focuses on violent crimes, the bottom-up approach uses techniques like smallest space analysis and spatial consistency. methods can be applied to offences such as burglary
  • Smallest space analysis + spatial consistency suggests offenders operate in familiar areas. This helps law enforcement predict future crimes
  • this adaptability makes the bottom-up approach more effective, as it can be used across different types of crimes
• atavistic form

  a historical approach to offending. Lombroso (1976) suggested a biological basis for criminal behaviour, suggesting criminals inherited certain traits in their genetic makeup, which made them a primitive evolutionary, genetic throwback. he argued their inherent 'savage' nature made them incapable of adapting to societal norms, leading them to crime
• what does the atavistic form include

  • narrow, sloping brow
  • prominent jaw
  • high cheekbones
  • facial asymmetry
  • dark skin
  • extra toes/nipples/fingers
• murderer + sexual deviant atavistic form

  • bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears
  • glinting eyes, swollen/fleshy lips and projecting eyes
• A03 atavistic form (father of criminology)

  • Lombroso has been considered the father of modern criminology
  • he is credited with shifting the emphasis of crime research away from moralistic discourse towards a more scientific and credible realm
  • lombroso's theory heralded the beginning of criminal profiling
  • in this way, he made a major contribution to the science of criminology
• A03 atavistic form (scientific racism)

  • several critics, including DeLisi (2012) have drawn attention to distinct racist undertones within Lombroso's work
  • many features that Lombroso identified as criminal and atavistic, such as curly hair + dark skin are most likely to be found among people of African descent
  • His description of the atavistic being primitive 'savages' would lend support to eugenic philosophies of the time
  • whether Lombroso intended this is the debate, little doubt overshadows his legacy and criminology
• A03 atavistic form (contradictory research)

  • there is contradictory research
  • Goring (2013) compared 3000 criminals and 3000 non-criminals concluding there was no evidence that offenders are a distinct group with unusual characteristics
  • however, he did suggest offenders have lower-than-average intelligence
  • while intelligence offers limited support, it does question the key elements of his theory that criminals are different in terms of their appearance
• A03 atavistic form (lack of scientific rigour)

  • the lack of a control grouup means that we don't know if the characteristics were unique to criminals
  • there was also no control for the fact that some of the criminals had other psychological disorders and atavistic characteristics
  • these might have been related to such disorders and therefore a confounding variable impacting the significance of his results
  • without a non-criminal control group, it is difficult to draw conclusions that a feature is distinctive
• genetic explanation of criminal behaviour (4)

  • twin studies
  • adoption studies
  • candidate genes
  • diathesis-stress model
• twin studies in genetic explanations of criminal behaviour

  twin studies (Lange) have highlighted the role of genetics by showing a higher concordance rate for criminal behaviour among identical twins (compared to fraternal).
• adoption studies in genetic explanations of criminal behaviour

  Adoption studies also support (Crowe) the finding that a significantly higher risk of criminal behaviour among adopted children with biological criminal parents.
• candidate genes in genetic explanations of criminal behaviour

  further evidence comes from studies analysis of candiate genes (Tiihonen et al) suggesting a potential link between genetic abnormalities and violent crime

  this research is in the early stages and requires further replication
• diathesis-stress model in criminal behaviour

  offers a framework to understand how genetic predispositions interact with environmental factors to influence criminal behaviour. this model suggests that while genetics may contribute to a predisposition of criminal behaviour, environmental factors such as upbringing or exposure to criminal influences also play a crucial role in whether these expressions are expressed
• psychopathy (neural explanations for criminal behaviour)

  research indicates potential neural disparities between individuals who engage in criminal behaviour and those who do not. Much of this research focuses on individuals diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy), a condition often associated with diminished emotional responses, a lack of empathy found commonly with convicted criminals
• prefrontal cortex (neural explanations for criminal behaviour)


  Raine has conducted numerous studies examining the brains of individuals with antisocial personality disorder (ASP). His research reveals that those with this condition exhibit reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex, a region responsible for regulating emotional behaviour

  Additionally, Raine (2000) discovered an 11% decrease in grey matter volume in the prefrontal cortex of indivduals with ASP compared to controls
• mirror neurons (neural explanations for criminal behaviour)


  Recent studies suggest that criminals diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder may possess the capacity for empathy, albeit inconsistently. Keysers et al (2011) found that when criminals were prompted to empathise with individuals experiencing pain in filmed scenarios, their mirror neuron activity associated with empathy was triggered. implying individuals with ASP may be able to switch empathy on/off unlike individuals without the disorder whos response remains active
• AO3 of genetic and neural explanations (problem with twin studies)

  • Early twin studies of criminality were poorly controlled, and judgements related to zygosity (MZ/DZ) were based on appearance rather than DNA testing and therefore lack validity
  • Also, twin studies involve small sample sizes and are an unusual sample as they don't represent the population
  • Finally, most twins are reared in the same environment which is a confounding variable as concordance rates may be due to shared learning experience not genetics
  • these limitations highlight the need for caution when generalising findings
• AO3 of genetic and neural explanations (support for the diathesis-stress model)

  • support for the diathesis-stress model of crime comes from the landmark study investigating over 13000 Danish adoptees
  • Mednick et al (1984) found a gradual increase in criminal behaviour with increasing genetic risk (presence of criminal parents) suggests that genetic predisposition plays a role
  • 13-15% when both biological + adoptive parents has no record and 24.5% when both did
  • however, the difference in rates highlights the influence environmental factors have on shaping behaviour
• AO3 of genetic and neural explanations (problems with adoption studies)

  • while adoption studies offer valuable tools for disentangling the relative influences of nature vs nurture they are not without limitations
  • complicated by late adoption as many children spend a significant portion of their lives with their bio families
  • environmental distinction from biological parents is unrealistic
  • the maintenance of contact with biological families complicates the isolation of the adoptive environment influence on behaviour making it difficult to attribute traits solely to nurture
• AO3 of genetic and neural explanations (biological reductionism)

  • criminality is complex; explanations that reduce offending behaviour to a genetic or neural level may be inappropraite or overall simplistic
  • crime appears to run in families, but so do emotional instability, social deprivation and poverty (Katz 2007)
  • this makes it difficult to disentangle the effects of genetic and neural influences from other factors
  • the low concordance rates between MZ twins also suggest environmental factors may be responsible for criminal behaviour
• eysenck's theory

  our personality could be represented along 3 dimensions:

  • introversion - extroversion (E)
  • neuroticism - stability (N)
  • psychoticism - socialisation (P)