Carbohydrates

• What elements do the molecules of life contain?


  Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• What are monomers and polymers?


  • Monomers: Small units that are components of larger molecules (e.g., monosaccharides).
  • Polymers: Macromolecules formed by combining many monomers (e.g., disaccharides, polysaccharides).
• How are monomers joined together?


  By condensation where a molecule of water is removed
• What is hydrolysis in relation to monomers?


  It is the opposite of condensation, where water is added to break bonds
• What are the types of carbohydrates and their characteristics?

  • Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose) that provide energy.
  • Disaccharides: Formed by two monosaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
  • Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
• What is the general formula for monosaccharides?


  C_nH_2nO_n where n=3-7
• What is α-Glucose and its role?


  It is the main monomer for glycogen and forms polysaccharides like starch
• What is ß-Glucose and its significance?


  It forms polysaccharides like cellulose
• Where is fructose commonly found?


  In fruits
• What disaccharide is formed from glucose and fructose?


  Sucrose
• How is maltose formed?


  By condensation of two alpha glucose monomers
• What is lactose and how is it formed?


  It is formed by condensation of glucose and galactose
• What are the characteristics of glycogen?


  • Formed from many alpha glucose molecules.
  • Contains 14 and 16 glycosidic bonds.
  • Main energy store with side branches for quick energy release.
  • Insoluble and compact, storing immense energy.
• What is the structure of starch?


  It is a mixture of two polysaccharides: amylose and amylopectin
• What is amylose and its structure?

  Amylose is an unbranched chain of glucose molecules joined by α (1-4) glycosidic bonds
• What is amylopectin and its structure?

  Amylopectin is a branched chain of glucose molecules joined by α (1-4) and α (1-6) glycosidic bonds
• What is cellulose and its function?


  • Major structural component in plant cell walls.
  • Long, unbranched chains of glucose joined by glycosidic bonds.
  • Provides rigidity and maximizes surface area of plant cells.
• What are microfibrils?


  Strong chains of cellulose joined by hydrogen bonds
• What are the biochemical tests for reducing sugars?


  • All monosaccharides and some disaccharides are reducing sugars.
  • Use Benedict's reagent: mix food sample with Benedict's, heat, and observe color change.
• What indicates a reducing sugar in a Benedict's test?


  A burnt brick red color change
• What is the procedure for testing non-reducing sugars?

  1. Heat food sample with dilute hydrochloric acid to hydrolyze sugars.
  2. Neutralize with sodium hydrogencarbonate.
  3. Add Benedict's solution and heat again.
  4. Observe color change.
• What color does iodine/potassium iodine solution turn in the presence of starch?


  Blue-black
• What color indicates the absence of starch in an iodine test?


  Orange-brown
• What color pen should always be used for marking answers?

  Green Pen
• What are the types of polysaccharides mentioned?


  • Starch
  • Glycogen
  • Cellulose
  • Amylose
  • Amylopectin
• Where is starch found?


  Plants
• Where is glycogen found?


  Animals
• Where is cellulose found?


  Plants
• Where is amylose found?


  Plants
• Where is amylopectin found?


  Plants
• What type of glucose is starch made from?

  Alpha glucose
• What type of glucose is glycogen made from?


  Alpha glucose
• What type of glucose is cellulose made from?

  Beta glucose
• What type of glucose is amylose made from?


  Alpha glucose
• What type of glucose is amylopectin made from?


  Alpha glucose
• What is the primary function of starch?


  Energy storage
• What is the primary function of glycogen?


  Energy storage
• What is the primary function of cellulose?


  Structural
• What is the primary function of amylose?


  Energy storage
• What is the primary function of amylopectin?


  Energy storage