Behaviourist explanations of phobias

• Conditioning

  Conditioning refers to a process of shaping or changing a behaviour. 

  The two most common behavioural explanations for the acquisition of phobias are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

  How does this work?

  Hobart Mowrer (1960): phobias are learned by classical conditioning and then maintained by operant conditioning, i.e two processes are involved
• Classical conditioning

  Classical conditioning suggests that the person has learnt to fear something i.e. a neutral stimulus if it is paired with a frightening event (the unconditioned stimulus) i.e. learnt an association between the neutral stimulus and conditioned stimulus.
• Operant conditioning

  Operant conditioning = changing a behaviour because of a reward or for avoidance

  Once a fear is established, the individual then avoids the object or situation that produces the fear. This in turn reduces the anxiety 

  It also strengthens the fear and makes it more likely that this object/situation will be avoided in the future.
• Operant conditioning

  The idea is that the learned fear is then maintained by operant conditioning because fear is reduced when we avoid the object and so we are being reinforced through negative reinforcement. 

  E.g. once Albert avoided rats, his fear was reduced which meant he was being reinforced to avoid them again.
• What is operant conditioning?


  A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
• What does reinforcement mean in the context of operant conditioning?


  It refers to behavior that leads to an outcome that is satisfying or desired.
• What is positive reinforcement?


  It is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated by providing pleasant consequences.
• How does positive reinforcement work? Give an example.


  It works by providing pleasant consequences, such as giving food to a rat to encourage a behavior.
• What is negative reinforcement?


  It is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated by removing unpleasant consequences.
• How does negative reinforcement function?


  It functions by using consequences that are pleasant when they stop, encouraging the behavior to be repeated.
• What is punishment in operant conditioning?


  It is anything unpleasant that decreases the likelihood of undesired behavior.
• What effect does punishment have on behavior?


  It decreases the likelihood of any behavior that is not the desired behavior.
• What are the key components of operant conditioning?


  • Reinforcement: behavior leading to satisfying outcomes
  • Positive reinforcement: increases behavior with pleasant consequences
  • Negative reinforcement: increases behavior by stopping unpleasant consequences
  • Punishment: decreases undesired behavior with unpleasant outcomes
• Operant conditioning

  Avoidance maintains the fear & preserves the phobia.

  Frequent contact with a phobic object may reveal it is harmless, which will lead to the extinction of the phobia. 

  However, people with phobias go to great lengths to avoid the object of their fear.
• The two-process model

  In his two-process model of phobia acquisition, Mowrer suggests that phobias are acquired as a result of classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning. 

  A person who is terrified of spiders is likely to run away when they see one. The escape and consequent reduction of fear acts as a negative reinforcer, increasing the likelihood that they will continue to avoid spiders in future.
• The two-process model

  In this way, the phobia is maintained. When an individual avoids a situation which is unpleasant, the behaviour results in a pleasant consequence which means the behaviour is likely to be repeated. 

  Mowrer suggested that whenever we avoid a phobic stimulus we successfully escape the fear and anxiety that we would have suffered if we had entered its presence or remained there. 

  This reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour and so the phobia is maintained.
• AO3 - The two-process model

  (+) The two-process explanation for phobias can explain the acquisition and maintenance of phobias which have been associated with an unpleasant event and can therefore account for some unusual phobias such as button or zip phobia. 
• (-) It does not, however, account for the fact that some phobias are far more frequent than others in the general population (despite the fact that there is no evidence that they have been more frequently associated with aversive events). 

  It would appear that certain classes of stimuli (those dangerous to pre-technical humans, such as snakes and other animals) are more easily conditioned than others. 

  A good explanatory theory needs to take account of factors such as evolution and biological preparedness in addition to classical and operant conditioning
• AO3 - Evaluation

  (-) Not all bad experiences lead to phobias

  Sometimes phobias appear after a bad experience. However, sometimes people have had a bad experience and don’t develop a phobia.

  = conditioning alone can’t explain phobias. 

  They may only dvp where vulnerability exists.
• AO3 - Evaluation

  (-) Alternative explanations for avoidance behaviour

  Some more complex phobias show that avoidance make the individuals feel safe (positive feeling of safety)

  That’s why some agoraphobics are able to leave their house with a trusted friends. They can reduce their anxiety BUT not alone.

  = issue for two-process model which suggests that avoidance is motivated by anxiety reduction.