Observations

• Ethical issues in design and conduct

  • One important non-experimental method is observation. 
  • Observations provide psychologists with a way of seeing what people do without having to ask them.
  • They also allow researchers to study observable behaviour within a natural or controlled setting.

  This method allows a researcher to study flexibility to study more complex interactions between variables.
• Naturalistic and Controlled observations

  • It is sometimes useful to control certain aspects of the research situation, so a controlled observation may be preferred.
  • In a controlled observation there is some control over variables, including manipulating variables to observe effects and also control of confounding/extraneous variables.
• Naturalistic and controlled observations

  • Naturalistic observations take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur.
  • All aspects of the environment are free to vary.
  • For instance, it would not make sense to study how senior management and employees in a particular factory interact by dragging the whole of the workforce into an artificial lab setting. It is much better to study 'interaction' in the factory environment where it would normally take place.
• AO3

  • Naturalistic observations tend to have high external validity
  • Findings can often be generalised to everyday life. 
  • This is because the behaviour is studied within the environment where it would normally occur.
• AO3

  • The lack of control over the research situation makes replication of the investigation difficult. 
  • There may also be many uncontrolled confounding/extraneous variables that make it more difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour.
• AO3

  • Controlled observations, in contrast, may produce findings that cannot be as readily applied to everyday life. 
  • Confounding/extraneous variables may be less of a factor so replication of the observation becomes easier.
• Covert and Overt observations

  • Behaviour may occasionally be recorded without first obtaining the consent of the participants. 
  • Covert observations are those in which the participants are unaware they are the focus of study and their behaviour is observed in secret (covertly)
  • Such behaviour must be public and happening anyway if the observation is to be ethical
• Covert and Overt observations

  • In contrast, overt observations are when participants know their behaviour is being observed and have given their informed consent beforehand.
• AO3

  • The fact that participants do not know they are being watched removes the problem of demand characteristics and ensures any behaviour observed will be natural. 

  This increases the internal validity of the data gathered.
• AO3

  • The ethics of these studies may be questioned as people may not wish to have their behaviours noted down (right to privacy). 
  • For example,'shopping' would generally be recognised as a public activity, but the amount of money they spend might not be something they want to share.
  • Overt observations are more ethically acceptable but the knowledge participants have that they are being observed may act as a significant influence on their behaviour.
• Participant and non-participant observations

  • Sometimes it may be necessary for the observer to become part of the group they are studying, as is the case with participant observations. 
  • For instance, we might have improved the study of factory workers and management by having the researcher actually join the workforce to produce a first-hand account.
• Participant and non-participant observations

  • Non-participant observations are when the researcher remains separate from those they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner. 
  • It may often be impractical or even impossible to join particular groups so that non-participation is the only option
• AO3

  • In participant observations, the researcher can experience the situation as the participants do, giving them increased insight into the lives of the people being studied. 

  This may increase the external validity of the findings.
• AO3

  • There is a danger, however, that the researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity. 
  • Some researchers refer to this as adopting a local lifestyle when the line between being a researcher and being a participant becomes blurred.
• AO3

  • Non-participant observations allow the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from their participants so there is less danger of them adopting a local lifestyle. 
  • However, they may lose the valuable insight to be gained in a participant observation as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying.