Psychology 1

• What is processing in the context of memory?


  Processing refers to the operations we perform on sensory information in the brain.
• What does input refer to in human memory?


  Input refers to the sensory information we receive from our environment.
• What is storage in memory?


  Storage is the retention of information in our memory system.
• What is encoding in the context of memory?


  Encoding is turning sensory information into a form that can be used and stored by our brain.
• What does retrieval mean in memory?


  Retrieval refers to the recall of stored memories.
• What does output refer to in memory?


  Output refers to the information we recall.
• What are the key differences between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)?


  **LTM:**

  • Capacity: Potentially limitless
  • Duration: A few minutes to a lifetime
  • Encoding: Mainly semantic
  • Forgetting: Decay, interference, retrieval failure

  
  

  **STM:**

  • Capacity: Around 7 bits of info
  • Duration: Around 18 seconds without rehearsal
  • Encoding: Acoustic
  • Forgetting: Displacement, decay
• What is retrograde amnesia?

  Retrograde amnesia is a memory condition that affects recall of memories prior to an injury to the brain.
• What are the symptoms of retrograde amnesia?


  Patients can forget who they are, and memories may come back after a while.
• What is anterograde amnesia?


  Anterograde amnesia is a memory condition that means new long-term memories can’t be made.
• What are the symptoms of anterograde amnesia?


  The ability to transfer STM to LTM is damaged, and memory can’t last beyond a few minutes.
• Who is Clive Wearing?


  Clive Wearing is known for having one of the worst cases of anterograde amnesia.
• What is Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory?


  Bartlett's theory suggests that memory is an interpretation or reconstruction of events influenced by our schemas.
• How are schemas formed according to Bartlett?


  • Schemas are formed throughout our lives through experiences.
  • They influence how we remember information.
• What are the effects of schemas on memory recall according to Bartlett?


  • Omissions: Leaving out unfamiliar or irrelevant details.
  • Transformation: Changing details to make them more familiar.
  • Familiarisation: Altering unfamiliar details to align with our schema.
  • Rationalisation: Adding details to provide reasons for events.
• What is a strength of Bartlett's theory?


  It has practical applications, such as improving eyewitness testimony through cognitive interviews.
• What is a weakness of Bartlett's theory?


  Findings could be subjective and unscientific due to the interpretation of participants' responses.
• What does Atkinson and Shiffrin's multi-store model of memory include?


  • Different sensory registers:
  • Iconic memory (visual, ~1 sec)
  • Echoic memory (auditory, a few seconds)
  • Gustatory (taste)
  • Olfactory (smell)
  • Tactile (touch)
  • Three stores: sensory, STM, and LTM.
• What happens to sensory information if we do not pay attention to it?


  If we do not pay attention, the sensory information can only hold for 15-30 seconds before decaying.
• What is the serial position effect?


  The serial position effect shows that there are different memory stores, such as sensory, STM, and LTM.
• What is a strength of the multi-store model of memory?


  It has supporting evidence from Murdock's research on the serial position effect.
• What is a weakness of the multi-store model of memory?


  It is considered outdated and too simple, as new research opposes the theory.
• What was the aim of Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" study?


  The aim was to test reconstructive memory using an unfamiliar story to see if a person's schema influences what they remember.
• What were the results of Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" study?


  • Rationalisation took place.
  • Details became familiarised and simplified (e.g., "canoe" became "boat").
• What is a strength of Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" study?


  The procedure used various stories and pictures, leading to reliable results.
• What is a weakness of Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" study?


  The procedures weren’t standardized, meaning the theory wasn’t as scientific as it could have been.
• What was the conclusion of Peterson & Peterson's study on short-term retention?


  Information held in our STM fades rapidly, with only 10% of people able to recall after 18 seconds.
• What were the procedures in Peterson & Peterson's study?


  • 24 students repeated a trigram out loud.
  • They counted backwards for 3-18 seconds before recalling.
  • The procedure was repeated 48 times.
  • A second experiment allowed time to repeat before counting back.
• What is a strength of Peterson & Peterson's study?


  The study is scientific, allowing for replication and reliability checks.
• What is a weakness of Peterson & Peterson's study?


  The findings cannot be easily applied to everyday scenarios, as they are not realistic.
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the holism vs reductionism debate in psychology?


  **Strengths:**

  • Reductionism: Associated with scientific methods and reliability.
  • Holism: Provides greater insight into behavior using qualitative methods.

  
  

  **Weaknesses:**

  • Reductionism: Overly simplistic, may ignore interaction effects.
  • Holism: Considered unscientific, findings may not apply universally.
• How does the holism/reductionism debate link to memory?


  • Reductionism: Multi-store model describes memory as component stores.
  • Holism: Bartlett's theory uses qualitative data to understand memory.
• What does Piaget's theory from 1932 state about moral understanding in children aged 5-10?

  Children believe rules can't be changed and that morality comes from others.
• How does a child's understanding of morality change around the age of 10 according to Piaget's theory?

  Children begin to understand that intentions are important and that rules can be changed to benefit others.
• What is the first stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?

  Stage 1 is where a child obeys rules to avoid punishments.
• What is the focus of Stage 2 in Kohlberg's theory?

  Stage 2 focuses on self-interest and what benefit can be gained.
• What characterizes conventional morality in Kohlberg's theory?

  Conventional morality includes Stage 3, where individuals conform to social rules, and Stage 4, where they maintain social order by obeying authority.
• What is the significance of post-conventional morality in Kohlberg's theory?

  Only about 10% of people reach post-conventional morality, which includes Stage 5, where laws are seen as social contracts, and Stage 6, where universal ethics must be followed.
• What are morals defined as?

  Morals are standards of right and wrong behavior that can differ between cultures and depend on the situation.
• How does morality differ from morals?

  Morality refers to how people behave according to principles and beliefs about what is right and wrong.