OBSERVATIONS

• Observations- Key notes:

  • With observations, we do not manipulate variables (or control over extraneous variables)
  • Therefore, cause and effect relationships cannot be established
• Types of Observations- Covert:

  • COVERED
  • Group being studied do not know they are being observed (undercover research e.g. James Patrick & Glasgow Gang)
  • STRENGTHS: Investigator effects are unlikely- participants behaviour is genuine
  • WEAKNESSES: Issues & Concerns around informed consent / deception
• Types of Observations- Overt:

  • OPEN
  • Researcher tells participants that they are conducting research (participants know they are being observed)
  • STRENGTHS: Consent can be obtained
  • WEAKNESSES: Hawthorne effect
• Hawthorne Effect: Participants know that they are being watched so they change their behaviour
• TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS- CONTROLLED:

  • Behaviour is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (E.g. Bandura’s bobo doll study)
  • STRENGTHS: Can be easily replicated (can test for reliability), Quantitative Data- easier / quicker to analyse (than natural), Quick to conduct, many can be done in a short amount of time (representative so can be generalised to a large population)
  • WEAKNESSES: Can lack validity- Hawthorne effect
• Natural Observations:

  • Spontaneous behaviour is recorded in a natural setting 
  • STRENGTHS: Behaviour is observed in its own setting- greater ecological validity
  • WEAKNESSES: Observations are done on a small scale (unrepresentative) , less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled (hard to repeat)
• TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS: PARTICIPANT:

  • Observer- has direct contact with the group of people they are observing
  • STRENGTHS: The researcher can obtain in-depth data (near to the participants so are unlikely to overlook / miss any behaviours)
  • WEAKNESSES: Evaluation Apprehension (researcher’s presence might influence participant’s behaviour), Difficult to get time / privacy for recording (have to rely on memory), Researcher becomes too involved- lose objectivity, become biased)
• TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS- NON-PARTICIPANT:

  • Researcher doesn’t have direct contact with the people being observed
  • STRENGTHS: Investigator effects & Evaluation Apprehension are less likely (can’t see researcher)
  • WEAKNESSES: Lack of proximity- might overlook / miss some behaviours
• OBSERVATIONAL DESIGN:

  • Applies to STRUCTURED observations ONLY
  • How to classify / record the data (may involve a sampling method)
• EVENT SAMPLING:

  • Researcher decides which types of behaviour they are interested in & records all occurrences
  • Ignores all other types of behaviour
• TIME SAMPLING:

  • Observation occurs only during specified time periods e.g. 10 mins every hour
  • The occurrence of the specified behaviour is recorded during that time period only
• Assessing Reliability- Inter-observer:


  • Researchers observe the SAME BEHAVIOURS INDEPENDENTLY (to avoid BIAS)
  • Data is COMPARED and CORRELATE
  • 0.8+ or more would suggest RELIABILITY
• Validity (external)

  • Less awareness 
  • More natural & normal situation
  • More realistic behaviour
• 3 decisions to be made:

  • Covert or Overt
  • Natural or Controlled
  • Non-participant or participant
• Behavioural Categories:

  • Psychologists must decide which behaviours should be examined
  • Breaking target behaviour (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed & measured (e.g. hitting / kicking)