Observations

• What are observations


  when the researcher observes behaviour in real life situations or in a lab without manipulating an independent variable. no attempt is made to influence the behaviour being investigated
• How can observations differ

  • the setting (naturalistic vs controlled)
  • the role of the researcher (participant vs non-participant)
  • the amount of structure that is imposed (structured vs unstructured)
• What are naturalistic observations

  carried out in a natural setting/environment for Ps and focus on people's naturally occurring behaviour
• What are controlled observations


  conducted in a lab which allows the researcher to have some control over the environment in which the research is carried out
• Strength and weakness of naturalistic observations

  + high ecological validity due to natural setting = can generalise findings to real life

  -low control over situational variables = decreases internal validity
• Strength and weakness of controlled observation


  + high control over situational variables = increased internal validity

  -low ecological validity due to controlled environment = cannot generalise findings to real life
• What is a participant observation


  the observer infiltrates the group/situation being studied while observing their behaviour
• What is non-participant observation 


  when the observer remains external from those being observed (watched Ps from a distance)
• Strength and weakness of participant observation


  + more detailed and accurate data due to the observer being involved in the events that they are observing

  -researcher effects if Ps know they're being observed = low IV

  -hard to remain hidden when observer is involved so demand characteristics = low IV

  -social desirability = low IV
• Strength and weakness of non-participants observation 


  + reduced risk of demand characteristics = high IV

  -may miss behaviours/information = low IV
• What is an overt observation


  when participants are aware they are being observed
• Strength and weakness of overt observation


  + more ethical/removes ethical issues such as invasion of privacy and deception because Ps know they're being observed = upholds the reputation of psychological research

  -demand characteristics = low IV

  -social desirability = low IV
• What is a covert observation


  when participants are not aware that they are being observed
• Strength and weakness of covert observations 


  + low risk of demand characteristics because Ps are unaware being observed = increased IV

  -difficult to remain hidden/unseen as Ps may spot researcher observing = increases risk of demand characteristics = decreases IV
• What is a structured observation


  when observer designs a type of coding frame (e.g checklist of pre-determined behaviours) to record behaviour using a tally system. usually produces quantitative data
• Strength and weakness of structured observations


  +can establish inter-rater reliability as there is a pre-determined list of operationalised behaviours

  -due to pre-determined categories spontaneous behaviour cannot be recorded = limited view of behaviour = reduces IV
• What are unstructured observations 


  having no structure before observing and simply making field notes + analysing it later by looking for patterns of behaviour. usually produces qualitative data
• Strength and weakness of unstructured observations


  +thorough insight into behaviour because all potential behaviour can be recorded as there are no set behavioural categories = increases IV

  -difficult to check for consistency and establish inter-rater reliability as lots of difficult behaviours can be recorded
• What is time sampling 


  when pre-determined time intervals are used for the observation and records of behaviour are related to these
• Strength and weakness of time sampling 


  +reduces researcher fatigue as they don't have to continuously watch behaviour uninterrupted so simplifies data recording= increases accuracy = increases IV

  -more likely to miss behaviours occurring outside the time schedules when the observation takes place = low IV
• What is event sampling 


  when you list all of the behaviours you see for that event and observe continuously and uninterrupted for the whole duration of the observation period
• Strength and weakness of event sampling 


  +less likely to miss behaviours as its continuously recorded and all occurrences of behaviour can be noted down = increased IV

  -may get difficult to record behaviours due to fatigue = so may miss some behaviours = lack of validity as only the most eye catching may be noted
• How can researchers establish if an observation has inter-rater reliability


  researchers would need to initially compare the observations of each researcher and check if they matched - to do this the observers would need to watch the same individuals but record the Ps behaviour independently . the results are then compared using a correlation. if observers are seen to agree = positive correlation + inter-observer reliability achieved
• How to increase the level of inter-rater reliability 


  • if researchers meet prior to the study to establish + agree on behavioural categories
  • use a pilot study to assess ease of the coding scheme + identify any problems before the real observation so it can be amended.
  • important that behaviour is fully operationalised so all observers know what constitutes a behaviour
  • collecting quantitative data allows researchers to check for consistency between observations