C6 - Learning

• What is an Unconditioned Stimulus (US)?

  A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.
• What is the definition of learning?

  Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that arises from practice or experience.
• How do cognitive psychologists view learning?

  Cognitive psychologists view learning as a mental change that may not always be associated with changes in behavior.
• What is classical conditioning?

  Classical conditioning is a simple form of associative learning that enables organisms to anticipate events.
• What is a stimulus?

  A stimulus is an environmental condition that evokes a response from an organism.
• Why did Pavlov's dogs learn to salivate in response to the bell?

  They formed associations between stimuli because the stimuli were contiguous.
• What is an Unconditioned Response (UR)?

  An unconditioned response is an automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.
• What is an example of an unconditioned stimulus (US)?

  Pavlov's meat powder is an example of an unconditioned stimulus.
• What are taste aversions?

  Taste aversions are examples of classical conditioning that motivate organisms to avoid potentially harmful food.
• How do taste aversions differ from classical conditioning?

  Only one association may be required, and the US and CS do not have to be contiguous.
• What does the evolutionary perspective suggest about taste aversions?

  It suggests that animals and humans are biologically predisposed to develop aversions that are adaptive in their environments.
• What is extinction in classical conditioning?

  Extinction is the process by which a CS loses the ability to elicit CRs because the CS is no longer paired with the US.
• What is spontaneous recovery?

  Spontaneous recovery is the recovery of a CR after extinction, functioning as a result of the passage of time.
• What is discrimination in classical conditioning?

  Discrimination is when organisms learn that many stimuli perceived as similar are functionally different.
• What is higher-order conditioning?

  Higher-order conditioning occurs when a previously neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired repeatedly with a stimulus that has already become learned.
• What is operant conditioning?


  Operant conditioning is a simple form of learning in which an organism learns to engage in certain behavior because of the effects of that behavior.
• What is a reinforcer?

  A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the probability that responses preceding it will be repeated.
• What are negative reinforcers?

  Negative reinforcers increase the probability of a behavior when removed.
• What are secondary reinforcers?

  Secondary reinforcers acquire their value through being associated with established reinforcers.
• What is extinction in operant conditioning?

  Extinction occurs as a result of repeated performance of operant behavior without reinforcement.
• What is spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning?

  Spontaneous recovery occurs when the reward returns and the behavior increases.
• How do reinforcers differ from rewards and punishments?

  Reinforcers are known by their effects, while rewards and punishments are known by how they feel.
• What are the results of using punishment?

  Punishment often fails to achieve its goals and can lead to negative outcomes such as aggression and poor relationships.
• Why is physical punishment discouraged?

  Physical punishment is discouraged because it can lead to aggression, poor relationships, and withdrawal from situations.
• What are discriminative stimuli?

  Discriminative stimuli act as cues by providing information about when an operant will be reinforced.
• What is continuous reinforcement?

  Continuous reinforcement is when reinforcement occurs after every response.
• What is partial reinforcement?

  Partial reinforcement maintains behavior and is more resistant to extinction.
• What is a variable interval schedule?

  A variable interval schedule involves a variable amount of time between reinforcements.
• What is a fixed ratio schedule?

  A fixed ratio schedule provides reinforcement after a fixed number of correct responses.
• What is a variable ratio schedule?

  A variable ratio schedule provides reinforcement after a variable number of correct responses.
• What is shaping in operant conditioning?

  Shaping reinforces progressive steps toward the behavioral goal.
• What do cognitive psychologists use in learning?

  Cognitive psychologists use concepts such as mental structures, schemas, templates, and information processing.
• What is latent learning?

  Latent learning is when learning remains hidden until an organism is motivated to behave.
• What is observational learning?

  Observational learning is acquiring operants by observing the behavior of others.
• Who proposed the concept of observational learning?

  Albert Bandura proposed the concept of observational learning.
• What is behavior modification in the classroom?

  Behavior modification in the classroom involves teachers paying attention to children when they behave appropriately.
• What is programmed learning?

  Programmed learning assumes that any complex task can be broken down into small steps.
• What did Rescorla conclude about classical conditioning?

  Rescorla concluded that the co-appearance of two events cannot explain classical conditioning; learning occurs when the CS indicates the US is likely to follow.