C7 - Memory

• What concepts do cognitive psychologists use in learning?

  Mental structures, schemas, templates, and information processing
• What did Tolman demonstrate about latent learning in rats?

  Rats learn about their environment without reinforcement
• When does latent learning become evident according to Tolman?

  When the rats are motivated to behave
• Who proposed the concept of observational learning?

  Albert Bandura
• What is a model in the context of observational learning?

  A person whose behavior is imitated
• What does it mean for observers to be vicariously reinforced?

  They are rewarded indirectly by observing others
• What is explicit memory also known as?

  Declarative memory
• What is episodic memory?

  A form of explicit memory for personal experiences
• What is semantic memory concerned with?

  General knowledge and meanings
• What characterizes implicit memory?

  Memory of how to perform tasks without conscious recall
• How can implicit memory be illustrated?

  By the skills people perform without stating them
• What is retrospective memory?

  Recalling information that has been previously learned
• What does prospective memory involve?

  Remembering to do things in the future
• When does prospective memory tend to fail?

  When we are preoccupied, distracted, or stressed
• What are the types of prospective memory tasks?

  Habitual, event-based, and time-based tasks
• How do moods and attitudes affect prospective memory?

  Negative emotional states impair prospective memory
• What is the first process in memory?

  Encoding
• How does encoding transform information?

  It converts information into psychological formats for mental representation
• What is visual code in memory?

  Remembering things as a picture
• What is acoustic code in memory?

  Remembering things as a sequence of sounds
• What is semantic code in memory?

  Remembering things in terms of their meaning
• What is storage in memory processes?

  Maintaining information over time
• What is maintenance rehearsal?

  Mental repetition of information to keep it in memory
• What is metamemory?

  Our awareness of how our memory functions
• What is elaborative rehearsal?

  Extending the semantic meaning of what you are trying to remember
• What is retrieval in memory processes?

  Locating stored information and returning it to consciousness
• What are the three stages of memory according to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?

  Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory
• What is sensory memory?

  The first type of memory encountered by a stimulus
• What are saccadic eye movements?

  Series of eye fixations that jump from one point to another
• What is a memory trace?

  A visual impression left by a stimulus
• How long does a memory trace for visual stimuli last?

  It decays within a second
• What is iconic memory?

  The sensory register that holds visual stimuli
• What are icons in memory?

  Visual stimuli held in iconic memory
• What is eidetic imagery?

  Photographic memory that allows long-term storage of visual stimuli
• How do saccadic eye movements relate to iconic memory?

  They allow us to perceive imagery in film as seamless
• What is echoic memory?

  The sensory register that holds auditory stimuli
• How long can echoic memory last?

  It can last for several seconds
• What happens when we focus on a stimulus in the sensory register?

  We tend to retain it in short-term memory
• How long does information fade in short-term memory without rehearsal?

  After 10-12 seconds
• What is the serial-position effect?

  The tendency to recall the first and last items in a series