gender and culture bias

• bias 


  any factor that interferes with the validity of a research process
• gender bias


  the differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real difference
• alpha bias (gender bias)


  a tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, suggesting that there are real and enduring differences between the sexes
• beta bias (gender bias)


  a tendency to ignore or minimise the differences between men and women
• androcentrism 


  the consequence of beta bias and occurs when all behaviour is compared according to a ‘male’ standard often to the neglect and exclusion of women
• cultural bias


  the tendency to judge all cultures and individuals in terms of your own cultural assumptions
• universality 


  the aim to develop theories that apply to all people, which may include real differences. this describes underlying characteristics of human behaviour which can be applied to all individuals regardless of their differences
• culture


  the rules, customs, morals and ways of interacting that bind together members of a society or some collection of people
• cultural relativism


  the view that behaviour, morals, standards and values cannot be judged properly unless they are viewed in the context of the culture in which they originate
• alpha bias (cultural bias)


  cultural relativism can lead to an alpha bias, where the assumption of real differences lead psychologists to overlook universals
• beta bias (cultural bias)


  refers to theories that minimise or ignore cultural differences
• ethnocentrism 


  evaluating other groups of people using the standards and customs of one’s own culture, in extreme forms can lead to prejudice and discrimination against ‘lesser’ cultures
• What does the psychodynamic explanation for offending behavior suggest about criminality?

  Criminality occurs due to a deviant superego.
• According to Freud, why do females have less need to identify with their same-sex parent?


  Because females do not experience castration anxiety.
• What does the psychodynamic approach suggest about the morality of females compared to males?


  It suggests that females are less moral than males.
• Who refuted the idea that females are less moral than males according to the psychodynamic approach?


  Hoffman et al.
• What does Wilson’s sociobiological theory of relationship formation suggest about sexual promiscuity in males?


  It suggests that sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined.
• According to Wilson’s theory, how are promiscuous females viewed in relation to their nature?


  Promiscuous females are seen as going against their 'nature'.
• What is a potential consequence of alpha bias in relation to promiscuous women?

  It may lead to prejudice and stereotyping of women who engage in these behaviors.
• Since the 1980s, how has the diagnosis of schizophrenia differed between men and women?

  Schizophrenia has been diagnosed more frequently in men compared to women. (alpha gender bias)
• According to Cotton et al., what are women more likely to maintain compared to men when diagnosed with schizophrenia?

  Women are more likely to maintain good interpersonal relationships and continue working.
• What does the masking of symptoms in women with schizophrenia imply about their diagnosis?

  It implies that the symptoms of women may not be severe enough to merit a diagnosis. (alpha gender bias)
• example of androcentrism


  'PMS' (Brescoll and Uhlman) - female anger and emotion deemed as irrational and a 'syndrome' while males are rational
• What was ignored when generalizing the results of the fight or flight response studies to females?


  The differences between the sexes, such as speed and extent of the response
• What type of questions did participants answer in Kohlberg’s moral reasoning study?


  Questions based on moral dilemmas
• What was the consequence of generalizing Kohlberg’s results to both men and women?


  It overlooked potential differences in moral reasoning between genders
• evaluation of gender bias

  (+) feminist psychology, (-) bias in research methods, (-) laboratory experiments may be an example of institutionalised sexism within psychology
• example of cultural relativism


  Milgram's sample only consisted of 40 American male participants, therefore his findings on obedience shouldn't be generalised to other cultures.
• example of ethnocentrism


  Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is an example of cultural relativism due to suggesting that a secure attachment was only characterised by moderate separation and stranger anxiety. Therefore, German mothers, whose children showed little separation and stranger anxiety (thus being insecure-avoidant according to Ainsworth’s system), were deemed as cold and rejecting.
• Takano and Osaka


  reviewed 15 studies that compared the US and Japan in terms of collectivist/individualism and found that 14 out of 15 did not support the common view about differences in conformity, this suggests that there is a lesser divide in collectivists and individualists
• indigenous psychologies 


  a method of countering ethnocentrism, the development of different groups of theories in different countries
• Smith and Bond 


  surveyed research of a European social psychology text book to find that 66% of the studies were American, 32% European and 2% from the rest of the world
• consequences of cultural bias (military example)


  The US army IQ test showed that European immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ. This data has a profound effect on attitudes held by Americans towards certain groups of people, leading to stereotyping and discrimination.