Social Class

• What do official statistics show about social class differences in educational achievement?

  Social class differences continue despite improvements in educational achievement.
• How does the social class gap in educational achievement change as children get older?

  The social class gap grows wider as children get older.
• Which group of students performs better at GCSE and A level?

  Children of the middle class perform better.
• What are the two main categories of explanations for social class differences in educational achievement?

  • Outside school/external/home background explanations
  • Inside school/internal/interactionist/labelling/hidden curriculum explanations
• What does material deprivation refer to?

  Material deprivation refers to lacking basic material necessities due to poverty or low income.
• How does a lack of educational equipment affect students?

  It reduces access to important learning experiences.
• What percentage of 'failing' schools are located in deprived areas according to OFSTED evidence?

  90%
• How does poor diet affect educational achievement?

  Poor diet affects concentration, energy levels, health, and attendance to school.
• What impact does poor housing have on school achievement?

  Poor housing can lead to overcrowding and a lack of space for quiet study.
• How can temporary housing disrupt education?

  It can mean having to move schools.
• How does material deprivation affect working-class students' ability to attend university?

  Some working-class students may not be able to go to university or may drop out due to debt problems.
• What change in 2015 worsened the financial situation for students?

  Tuition fees were increased to £9000+ per year and maintenance grants were abolished.
• What does cultural deprivation refer to?

  Cultural deprivation refers to inadequate socialization in the home leading to a lack of appropriate attitudes, values, and language.
• What did Douglas (1964) argue about working-class homes?

  He argued that working-class homes often encouraged immediate gratification rather than deferred gratification.
• How do middle-class students differ from working-class students regarding financial gains?

  Middle-class students are more likely to defer financial gains by attending university.
• What did Douglas find about working-class parents' attitudes towards education?

  Working-class parents placed less value on education and were less encouraging compared to middle-class parents.
• What is a criticism of working-class parents' attendance at parents' evenings?

  Critics argue that working-class parents may attend less due to longer working hours or financial constraints.
• How does language use differ between working-class and middle-class children?

  Working-class children use language in ways that may restrict their intellectual development.
• What does Bernstein (1973) argue about working-class students and language codes?

  He argues that working-class students are socialized into a restricted language code.
• What is cultural capital according to Bourdieu?


  Cultural capital refers to the desired knowledge and values that middle-class families transmit to their children.
• How does economic capital affect educational success?

  Economic capital allows upper middle-class families to afford private schools with smaller class sizes.
• What is a criticism of the approach that blames cultural deprivation for educational underachievement?

  The approach too readily blames the victim and overlooks school-related factors.
• What is a limitation of the arguments regarding class differences in educational achievement?

  The arguments generalize and assume that most working-class households suffer from deprivations.
• What do interactionists emphasize regarding class differences in attainment?

  Interactionists stress the importance of social processes operating inside schools.
• What is the hidden curriculum?

  The hidden curriculum refers to all those things learned at school which are not openly or formally taught.
• How do teacher labels affect students?

  Teacher labels can shape expectations and attitudes towards students based on class backgrounds.
• What did Dunne & Gazeley (2008) find about teachers' perceptions of working-class pupils?

  Teachers normalized the underachievement of working-class pupils and believed they could do nothing about it.
• How does streaming affect working-class and middle-class students?

  Working-class students are often placed in lower sets, while middle-class students are placed in higher sets.
• What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of education?

  A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when pupils internalize teacher expectations, shaping their self-identity and performance.
• What did Hargreaves (1967) find about streaming and class?

  He found that streaming is linked to labelling by social class, with working-class students often in 'bottom' sets.
• How do anti-school subcultures develop among working-class students?

  They develop as a response to being labelled a 'failure' by the school.
• What is the difference between pro-school and anti-school cultures?

  Pro-school cultures support school values, while anti-school cultures oppose them.
• What did Gillborn & Youndell (2001) find about educational triage?

  They found that working-class students are often 'written off' and placed in low sets.
• What is a criticism of the notion of two polar opposite subcultures?

  Woods (1979) argues that there are a variety of subcultural responses to streaming.
• How do marketisation and selection policies affect educational achievement?

  They produce class differences in achievement by affecting the internal workings of schools.
• What is a limitation of the explanations regarding teacher labelling?


  The explanations generalize and assume all teachers label students the same way.
• What did Willis (1979) argue about anti-school subcultures?


  He suggested that anti-school cultures are a product of working-class culture and home backgrounds.
• What do postmodernists argue about class differences in educational achievement?

  They argue that class differences cannot be fully understood by looking at social class alone.
• What does Ofsted evidence show about working-class students' performance?

  Not all working-class students underperform; those in cities like London generally perform well.
• What is necessary to fully understand class inequalities in educational achievement?

  It is necessary to combine outside and inside school explanations.