10 Marker Examples

• Outline and explain two strengths of using primary data in research.


  · Primary data is collected by sociologists themselves focused on the particular issue they are investigating.

  · Consequently the researcher has control over most, if not all, aspects of the data collection process. They choose the research hypothesis, the methods to be used, what questions are asked, how observation may take place and how to categorise (or not) the responses of research subjects.

  · This means they can formulate research methods that reflect their theoretical concerns. Thus interpretivists could focus on methods that are high in validity whilst positivist researchers could select methods that best meet their concern for reliability and representativeness.

  · This higher level of control also means that researchers are able to take a critical stance on an issue. For example, by having this control, Willis was able to be critical both if the education system and traditional Marxist theory of the reproduction and legitimation of inequalities in schools.

  
  

  . Strength 2

  · Primary research can also fill in gaps in existing secondary data.

  · Much quantitative secondary data identifies trends and patterns on a large scale but does not necessarily then offer explanations why these occur. For example, analysis of exam results by social group identifies their relationship but it then requires primary research such as Gillborn and Youdell's into educational triage, to identify the processes involved.

  · Furthermore, primary research can develop new lines of enquiry where there are gaps in the secondary data. For example, Gewertz identified the processes by which some parents were able to 'play the system' of league tables and parental choice.

  · Where the only secondary data on a topic is existing sociological research, the nature of the issue being investigated may have changed in the intervening time period. In this case, the primary data would be a useful updating of previous research findings. For example, Archer's study of the interaction between pupil's identities and school applied Bordieu's concept of habitus in a contemporary setting.
• Outline and explain two limitations of using primary data


  Limitation 1

  · One of the limitations of primary data is that it is comparatively costly to collect and therefore often collected on a much smaller scale than some secondary data sources.

  · Whereas some secondary data results from well-resourced institutions including the government, research trusts and businesses, the sociologist usually has to make do with a far more limited research grant or budget. This may vary in size as well depending on the academic status of the researcher.

  · This practical limitation affects all aspects of a research programme including the number and range of participants, the methods employed, the size of the research team etc. In some cases there may only be one researcher as for example in Laud Humphreys' study of gay men's encounters.

  · One important consequence is that the scale of research may be very small which means the study is less likely to be representative which would be of ocnern to positivists. Thus Willis's study of anti-school subcultures involved only ten young men.

  Limitation 2

  · Primary research often means the researcher coming into direct contact with those being researched. Although not the case with mailed questionnaires, this is true of most other primary methods including participant observation, unstructured interviews and some experiments.

  · This direct contact Increases the likelihood of ethical problems arising. Guaranteeing anonymity, maintaining confidentiality and ensuring those involved are not harmed are all more difficult to achieve with primary as opposed to secondary data collection.

  · For example, when investigating schools, the greater vulnerability of pupils and more limited ability means gaining informed consent is more difficult. Delamont found in her research into classroom interaction that it was easy to see or hear things that were illegal or which could get pupils into trouble. Dealing with this guilty knowledge only occurs when researchers are in direct contact with research subjects.

  With covert primary research these are even greater as this involves deception and potentially becoming involved in illegal or immoral behaviours
• Outline and explain two strengths of using secondary data


  · Secondary data in the form of official statistics are collected by the government at regular intervals.

  · Sometimes this is through specific surveys of behaviour relating to government concerns, but mostly this data results from a 'count' of the outcomes of government activities. For example, schools recording unauthorised pupil absences.

  · Because the processes involved are standardised, this allows for the identification of trends, patterns and relationships. For example, statistics about examination results can be analysed for relationships with social class, gender and ethnicity. This can form the starting point for theoretical explanations of these relationships.

  · Trends over time can also be identified and these 'before and after' correlations can also prompt theoretical explanations. For example, this can be used to measure the impact of a particular crime prevention strategy by comparing crime rates before and after its intervention.

  
  

  
  

  Strength 2

  · Some, but not all, forms of secondary data originate from the state. These exist on a large scale and are usually free to access. This is particularly the case with official statistics. For example the census every ten years cost millions of pounds to carry out.

  · Data covers the whole range of government functions, including areas of interest to the sociologist such as education, health and crime. This saves sociologists huge amounts of time and money.

  · Only the government has the power to require people to complete documents like the Census, medical records etc. With primary research, the sociologist cannot compel people to participate. This makes official data more likely to be representative because of its immense scale and range of social groups included.

  · The data is also likely to be higher in reliability as the methods employed by the government are often repeated over time

  · Sociologists cannot come anywhere near matching the resources of the state when it comes to collecting data on a large scale.
• Outline and explain two limitations of using secondary data in research


  Limitation 1

  · A major limitation of secondary data is that it is not originally collected for the same purposes as those of the sociologist. They result from research carried out by government or businesses or as a result of their day-to-day operations; some also come in the form of documents produced by individuals for personal reasons.

  · This misalignment of purpose means that the research issue, how it is defined and measured, the categories employed and so on, may all be different to those of the sociologist. For example, a Marxist may not accept the definition and categorisation of social class as used in official statistics.

  · This also means that there is often no secondary data available that matches the sociologists' research purposes. Although official data exists about a shortage of male primary school teachers, there is no data on laddish subcultures or teacher labelling.

  · Official data definitions also change making comparisons over time difficult to carry out.

  
  

  Limitation 2

  · The validity of some secondary data is also open to challenge. Although personal documents may be highly valid in some cases, the same is not so true of official statistics.

  · Interpretivists such as Cicourel have argued that secondary data such as official crime statistics are socially constructed; they are the product of multiple decisions made as a potential crime is reported, recorded, investigated and so on. There is a 'dark figure of crimes that have been excluded for whatever reason during this process.

  · The validity of 'soft statistics' is therefore questionable. When crime rates recorded in official statistics are compared with those created by self-report studies, 60% of crimes do not appear in the official statistics.

  · This is a major limitation in that theories seeking to explain crime and other behaviours based on official statistics may be fundamentally flawed.

  · The construction of official statistics is therefore in itself a subject of research.
• Outline and explain two strengths of quantitative data


  Strength 1

  · Positivists see quantitative data collection as high in reliability. The methods of collecting data are standardised through structured methods such as questionnaires and these generate numerical data which can then be analysed for trends and patterns.

  · For example, official statistics compiled about exam results using standardised techniques, can lead to the relationship between achievement and social class, gender and ethnicity.

  · Other research instruments such as questionnaires are also high in reliability enabling the researcher to replicate them in different contexts.

  · The detail in such data can also enable sociologists to dig deeper into these relationships and uncover sub-setting of these groups. This means that over-generalised statements such as 'girls outperform boys' can be avoided.

  · This in turn can lead to identifying cause-and-effect relationships. In some cases, this also allows for comparisons over time to be made so that historical trends can be identified such as the impact of industrialisation on demographic and family structure.

  
  

  Strength 2

  · Quantitative data are valued by positivists for being highly representative. This means that sociologists can make generalisations from this data as if representative, what is true for the sample is going to be true for the whole research population. This gives research scientific credibility.

  · Samples of secondary quantitative data in particular are often very large. For example, all schools are required by law to publish Ofsted reports, exam results and attendance rates. Similarly, all citizens are legally required to complete the ten-yearly Census. That all, or nearly all, of a research population are recorded gives a very high level of representativeness.

  · Social surveys carried out by sociologists are also on a larger scale than unstructured methods and this means that researchers can identify trends, patterns and correlations at a societal level. For example, Willis, using qualitative methods, had a sample of only ten boys whereas Connor and Dewson were able to send out 4000 questionnaires to students.
• Outline and explain two limitations of quantitative data


  Limitation 1

  · Interpretivists are highly critical of quantitative data for its lack of validity. They argue that statistical data does not give and accurate or authentic view of the meanings social actors and groups hold.

  · Quantitative methods do not get an authentic version of the world view of social actors and groups for several reasons. One is that the questions and answer categories are determined by the researcher thus imposing their meanings onto the data. The researcher not the research subject determines what is important to the study.

  · Using close-ended answer categories illustrates this as respondents have to fit their views into the categories determined by the sociologist.

  · Questionnaires, official statistics and structured interviews involve a greater degree of detachment than interpretivist methods. This lack of or limited contact between the researcher and researched means that there is no way of knowing how the latter has interpreted the questions or of checking if their answer is a true reflection of their views.

  
  

  Limitation 2

  · Positivists see quantitative data as being higher in reliability and representativeness which makes it more scientific. However, this may not always be the case.

  · Not all quantitative data is as representative as sometimes claimed. Questionnaires often have a very low return rate which limits the range of responses and often distorts the return sample of respondents. For example, Hite's study based on 100,000 questionnaires had only 4500 returned.

  · Poor questionnaire design can also contribute to few being completed and returned. Complex or unclear questions can put off potential respondents.

  · Structured interviews take more time to carry out and this reduces the sample size to a point where getting representative sample is very difficult.

  · Researcher error in recording responses can also reduce the reliability of quantitative data.

  · Even official statistics may have limited representativeness as some are the result of surveys rather than being a count of the outcomes of a government department.
• Outline and explain two strengths of qualitative data


  · Interpretivists claim that qualitative data is essential because it is higher in validity than quantitative data. The data is a more accurate, truthful and gives a more authentic insight into the world views held by social actors and groups. By just 'hanging out' with 'the lads' Willis gained a better understanding of how they viewed the world.

  · This results from several characteristics of qualitative data and its collection. With observation techniques researchers see what people do, not what they claim they do in interviews or questionnaires.

  · The best way to access what a group thinks it to directly experience the group's day-to-day activities. This gives an insight from the inside. This verstehen results from putting yourself in the other person's place.

  · Qualitative data from unstructured interviews is also high in validity because control over what questions are asked, issues raised and the form answers take is more in the hands of the interviewee. They can say what they want, how they want to.

  
  

  Strength 2

  · Research techniques that create qualitative data are more flexible that structured methods. For example, participant observation requires the researcher to go with the flow of events involving the group being observed. This means the researcher is largely not imposing their structures on the group.

  · Informality allows rapport to develop and this level of trust makes it more likely that the respondents will open up to the researcher. This is particularly useful, even necessary, when studying sensitive issues such as domestic abuse or truancy. The researcher can back off if the research seems to becoming threatening to those involved.

  · Being more open and unstructured means that new areas of research interest are more likely to be uncovered during the research process. The research group is more likely to be more relaxed and therefore open up more, coming up with ideas and issues that may not have occurred to the researcher.
• Outline and explain two limitations of qualitative data


  Limitation 1

  · Qualitative data collection tends to involve a greater degree of contact with research subjects.

  · To uncover the meanings held by people means using methods that allow a researcher to get up close and personal with those being studied. As the researcher wants to find out the worldview of someone, they will have to involve themselves in some way with them, for example, through PO or structured interviews.

  · This focus on getting close to individuals brings with it particular ethical problems. The closer the relationship built through using an empathetic approach, the greater the risk of exploring private areas that research subjects might find upsetting or even harmful.

  · For example, investigating the victims of domestic violence through unstructured interviews may take the interviewee back over some very unpleasant life experiences. Re-living violent episodes may be useful for the researcher, but not for the interviewee.

  
  

  Limitation 2

  · Positivists see a major limitation of qualitative data collection is that it lacks reliability.

  · Each unstructured interview or participant observation is unique with a sustained lack of standardisation. For example, PO involves the researcher joining the group and going with its flow.

  · Much depends on the individual researcher and it is therefore highly unlikely that the study could be repeated by another researcher or with another group. For example, each classroom interaction observation, although patterned to some extent, is nevertheless unique.

  · Sometimes notes cannot be taken if the observation is covert which then means they have to written up retrospectively. For example, Hammersley found he had to write up notes on his newspaper as he listened to staffroom conversations.

  · This lack of reliability also means that the data produced cannot be checked so the researcher's interpretation can affect the results.

  · This also means that comparisons with other studies are impossible to make.
• Outline and explain two theoretical limitations of using participant observation in research


  Theoretical limitation 1

  · One theoretical limitation of participant observation (PO) from a positivist perspective, is that the data gathered lacks reliability.

  · Positivists would argue that as it is not standardised, participant observation (PO) is impossible to replicate. They would argue that as a result the method is unscientific as the original study cannot be replicated to see if the findings are accurate. Each PO study will be unique and the interaction that takes place with the group and will be dependent on a variety of factors, such as the characteristics and personal skills of the researcher.

  · For example, it would be impossible for another researcher to repeat Patrick's covert PO study on a Glasgow gang and get the same results. Although Patrick was a teacher, he was young enough to be able to fit in with the gang. Also, he gained access to the gang through his contact with the gang leader Tim. It would be extremely difficult for another researcher to gain access to such a group in the same way.

  · While potentially it may be easier to replicate an overt PO study as there is no deception, the activities of the group are open to different interpretations by the researcher. For example, Barker has been criticised for getting too involved with and biased towards the 'Moonies' she studied for 6 years. Another researcher may have interpreted the same behaviour differently, therefore illustrating how data gained from PO lacks reliability.

  
  

  Theoretical limitation 2

  Another theoretical problem with PO is that it may lack validity. This is particularly an issue for overt participant observation (OPO) due to the Hawthorne effect. As the group being studied know that they are being observed they may change their behaviour during the activities that the researcher is taking part in.

  In Punch's study, the police officers he spent time with may not have behaved normally due to wanting to protect their reputation. For example, they might not have shown him how they usually treated potential criminals during stop and search activities, as they may fear that they could get reported for being too aggressive towards the public.

  In the overt PO study of the 'Moonies', senior members of the religious movement may not have shown Barker how they 'brainwashed' new members to get them to stay in the group. In both studies the data may not have been a valid as it did not reflect the group's normal behaviour.

  While CPO does not have the problem of the Hawthorne Effect, which is why interpretivists prefer this approach to overt, the fact that the researcher becomes a new member of the group may cause suspicion and change the dynamic of the group again raising validity issues.
• outline and explain two ethical limitations of participant observations

  Ethical limitation 1

  · One ethical limitation of participant observation (PO) is that the researcher may have to get involved in activities that go against their own moral code. This is particularly the case for covert participant observation (CPO).

  · CPO involves deception as the researcher has to lie to the group being studied. This means that the researcher may have to engage in dangerous or illegal activities so as not to 'blow their cover'.

  · For example, Patrick had to participate in illegal and immoral activities such as carrying knives and vandalising a library. The nature of these activities was so disturbing that Patrick had to leave the group suddenly that could have caused him harm. Patrick had the moral dilemma that he should have informed the police about these illegal activities, but this may have meant that he would have had to end his research.

  · Similarly in Humphries 'Tearoom Trade' CPO study, he had to witness and act as a look out for men involved in illegal sexual activities. As a result, he risked being arrested. The men involved in Humphries study could have come to significant harm if their identity had been revealed. Humphries would argue that the ends justified the means as this was the only way that he could uncover the reasons why these men used the Tearoom was to study them covertly.

  · Despite being an 'honest' method as informed consent is gained, they may be ethical issues with Overt PO (OPO). For example, the researcher may observe behaviour of a 'gang' in a school such as smoking that should be reported to teaching staff, but they may be reluctant to do so as it may damage their relationship with the group.

  
  

  Ethical limitation 2

  · One practical limitation of participant observation (PO) is "getting in" i.e., gaining access to the group. Can access can often take time and may be dependent on the characteristics and skills of the researcher.

  · 'Getting in' can be a difficult problem when conducing PO, particularly as sociologist often wish to study deviant and secretive groups. With overt PO the group may deny access or stop the researcher from seeing all aspects of their behaviour whereas with covert PO, it may be hard and take a lot of time for an 'outsider' to gain trust of the group.

  · Patrick's covert study of a Glasgow gang can be used to illustrate the issue of 'getting in' as he had to be close to the boys' age to fit in and he only gained access through the gang leader 'Tim'. Humphries' initially covert study of 'Tea room trade' can be used to illustrate the issue of 'getting in' in terms of the observer's role. Humphries acted as a 'watch queen' (look out) as part of the process of gaining the trust of this very secretive group who were engaging in illegal behaviour. This took considerable time and skills.

  · Punch's overt study of Amsterdam police can be used to illustrate the problem of 'getting in' as the police officers only let Punch see certain aspects of their activities on patrol. This practical issue of not gaining full access could lead to the theoretical problem of the data lacking validity as the police officers stated that they only showed him what they wanted him to see.
• Outline and explain two strengths of using PO in research

  Strength 1

  · One theoretical strength of participant observation (PO) from an interpretivist perspective, is that the data gathered is rich in validity.

  · Interpretivists would tend to use participant observation as it gives a first-hand insight into the social interactions and behaviour of the group studied. As people are observed in their natural setting the researcher can gain in-depth and valid data. As there is subjective involvement by the researcher taking part in the activities of the group, insight and verstehen can also be obtained.

  · For example, in her overt PO study of the Moonies, Barker was able to observe and participate the 'secret' activities of the religious group. She became a 'trusted outsider' as she was with the Moonies for 6 years. As a result, Barker and was able to build up rapport with group members and gain in-depth valid data on their activities.

  · As the is no Hawthorne effect, covert PO may produce more valid data than overt PO. With covert PO, once the researcher has gained the trust of the group, they will potentially have access to see all aspects of their behaviour for themselves. For example, by gaining their trust over a period of months, Humphries was able to uncover the meanings behind why the men who visited the 'Tea room' engaged in this illegal behaviour.

  
  

  
  

  Outline and explain two strengths of participant observation

  Strength 2

  · One practical strength of participant observation (PO) is that it gives the sociologist flexibility in terms of how they conduct their research.

  · Rather than starting with a hypothesis, favoured by positivists, PO allows the researcher to adopt a 'bottom up' approach. Interpretivists prefer this approach as society is understood through the eyes of individuals. It also has the practical advantage in terms of flexibility of being able to study people over time.

  · As the participants are aware of the study, overt PO has great flexibility in terms of the methods that can be used. For example, in her overt PO study of the Moonies, Barker was able to use questionnaires and interviews to triangulate her findings. Another practical advantage relating to flexibility of overt PO is that as well as using other methods, is that as there is no set schedule the researcher can ask naive but important questions that may develop during the course of the observation.

  · A practical strength the covert PO has over overt PO is that once the researcher has gained the trust of the group, they will potentially have the flexibility to access to all aspects of the activities of their behaviour. For example, by gaining their trust over a period of months, Humphries was able to uncover the meanings behind why the men visited the 'Tea room'. Once he had gained their trust, Humphries revealed the purpose of his research to certain participants (became overt) which allowed him the flexibility to use other methods such as interviews to confirm the insights he gained from his observations.
• Outline and explain two practical advantages of using structured interviews in research


  Practical advantage 1

  · Relatively straightforward & inexpensive method of gaining large amounts of quantitative data

  · A large sample is often seen as advantageous in terms of achieving representative data which can be generalised from the sample to the wider research population.

  · Example of study: Young and Willmott: 933 people interviewed by a team of interviewers. Much cheaper than using Unstructured Interviews, since such interviewers do not need training - they just read off their script, i.e. read out the questionnaire.

  · Y&W (continued): interviews were formal & standardised, with precise & factual coded questions, on simple topics like people's age, job, religion, birthplace and on the contact with family members. Each interview took between about 10-30 minutes.

  · Positivists are particularly keen on getting large amounts of coded, numerical data. With this, they can the easily subject the data to mathematical tests, to see if any patterns exist, and to test/ falsify their hypothesis, via the strength of any correlations in the data.

  
  

  Practical advantage 2

  · Higher response rate (RR) than postal/ online questionnaires, making them more representative & generalisable

  · For example, of the 987 people Young and Willmott approached for their main sample, only 54 refused to be interviewed.

  · This may be because people find it harder to turn down a face-to-face request, and some may welcome the opportunity to talk.

  · Likewise, if SIs are conducted in school settings, this can boost the RR even further.

  · For example, if the researcher can obtain official support from the school's Head and Governors for the study, then the hierarchical nature of school may work in their favour. Heads could then instruct teachers to allow pupils to leave class for interviews and this will thus increase the response rate.

  · Positivists like higher RRs since this makes the sample more likely to be representative of the wider community, especially like when in schools, there is a highly accurate sampling frame to draw one's sample from.

  · As a result, this makes it much easier to make generalisations from the data and to test/ falsify the researcher's initial hypothesis.
• Outline and explain two practical limitations of using structed interviews in research

  Practical limitation 1

  · Problems with the sampling frame.

  · Often sociologists use the Electoral Register to pick their sample from, using a sampling method to normally improve representativeness.

  · However, the electoral register is a problematic sampling frame since it is always out of date. People move address, and are either still on when they have left, or are absent since they have not registered.

  · As a result, the sample drawn from the electoral register will be skewed towards a middle-class bias, making the data less representative.

  · Whilst schools keep accurate lists of pupils, staff and parents, schools may not keep lists that reflect the researcher's interests. For example, the sociologist may wish to take a representative sample of pupils of a particular ethnic group, but the school may not keep lists of pupils sorted by ethnic origin, so there is no sampling frame available from which to draw the sample.

  · Even where the relevant sampling frame does exist, gaining access to such confidential information may pose practical problems

  
  

  Practical limitation 2

  · Superficial data

  · The data from SIs tend to be limited and superficial.

  · One practical reason for this is that they need to be fairly brief, since most respondents are unlikely to want to stand on their doorstep/ on the phone and take part in a time-consuming SI.

  · As a result of wanting to maintain a high response rate, the researcher is limited in the amount questions and thus information that can be gathered from each respondent.

  · To keep things speedy, most questions are pre-coded, where the interviewer ticks boxes/ circles responses from a list of predetermined answers the interviewee chooses.

  · SIs are only suitable for gathering straightforward factual information such as a person's age or job, as Young and Willmott did with their study of extended family networks in east London in the 1960s.

  · As a result, no rapport is developed with the interviewee, and there is no practical way to thus ask more meaningful questions, in which the respondent can engage and give a more in-depth response. This is one of the key reasons why interpretivists reject this method of social research in favour of unstructured interviews.
• Outline and explain two practical advantage's of using unstructed interviewer's in research


  Practical advantage 1

  · Relaxed and informal method creates a rapport

  · One practical advantage of unstructured interviews (UI) from an interpretivist perspective, is that the more relaxed and informal nature of UIs allows a rapport to be built between the researcher and the interviewee.

  · This rapport or sense of greater trust is likely to generate data on sensitive topics which is high in validity as the interviewee is more likely to open up and offer personal insights into their life.

  · This generates in-depth data of a qualitative kind with the interviewee using their own words to describe their feelings and actions.

  · A great example of how UIs can develop a strong rapport with interviewees and thus gain rich and valid data is Ann Oakley's famous study of pregnant women 'From Here to Maternity'. The women trusted her so much, that they told her very sensitive information, such as how 70% of them informed her they 'were not interested' on holding their new-born baby for the first time (contrary to popular common-sense myth).

  · Likewise, Labov, in his research of black American children's speech, abandoned a formal approach and adopted a more relaxed, informal style of UI, sitting on the floor, as well as allowing the black students he was interviewing to have a friend present. As a result, he got a completely different response: the children opened up and spoke freely, showing that they were competent speakers.

  · Thus, such rapport is particularly important when researching sensitive subjects such as bullying, domestic abuse and the policing of crime, if you want a valid picture

  (This same point is made later, under theoretical advantages, but with a change of how you hook in the material - in the above you start with the practical advantage - you have a method which is relaxed and informal in its style - which generates valid data on sensitive topics.)

  
  

  Practical advantage 2

  · Flexible/ Checking understanding

  · Unstructured interviews are highly flexible.

  · The interviewer is not restricted to a fixed set of questions in advance, but can explore whatever seems interesting or relevant. The researcher can formulate new ideas and hypotheses and then put them to the test as they arise during the course of the interview.

  · There is no need to go away and draw up a new interview schedule, as there would be if using structured interviews

  · And this flexibility enables the researcher to explain any questions or terms that the interviewee does not fully understand.

  · This is likely to improve the validity of responses as the interviewee will have a better understanding of the question.

  · Likewise, the researcher can check their understanding of what the interviewee has said, by asking them to clarify/ rephrase so as they are better understood, something that is not possible in a structured interview.
• Outline and explain two practical limitations of using unstructed interviewer's in research


  Practical limitation 1

  · Time consuming (to do the interviews, to transcribe the recorded conversations and then to analyse the material and type up your final analysis) - cost implications.

  · Being in-depth explorations, UIs take a long time to conduct - often several hours each.

  · This limits the number that can be carried out and means that the researcher will have a relatively small sample compared with the larger numbers who can be studied using structured interviews or questionnaires.

  · For example, Ann Oakley interviewed 55 women 4 times each in Here to Maternity, with each interview lasting 2.36 hours.

  · Dobash and Dobash's research into domestic violence involved interviewing 109 women, each lasting between 2 to 12 hours long.

  · Moreover, having done the interviews, the researcher will then have to type up transcripts for each interview, which will take even longer.

  · Having completed that mammoth task, then will then have to spend even longer analysing their data, and coming to conclusions about it, and then synthesising it into a thesis/ report to be published in an academic journal or book.

  · This amount of time and effort keeps sample sizes small and thus they are neither representative of generalisable from. One of the reasons positivists reject them.

  
  

  Practical limitation 2

  · UI requires a high level of interviewer training in interpersonal skills in order to achieve empathetic understanding.

  · The interviewer has to be more highly trained in interpersonal skills to avoid their own unconscious biases and allow the voice of the interviewee to be heard.

  · Thus, they will need training in their interview technique, training which has to be far more thorough than for someone conducting structured interviews.

  · The interviewer needs to have a background in ethnography/ sociology so they can recognise when the interviewee has made a sociologically important point and can probe further with a suitable line of questioning.

  · Interviewers also need training developing better interpersonal skills so they can establish the rapport that is essential if interviewees are to answer fully and honestly.

  This training has a cost implication which feminists would see as a price well worth paying
• Outline and explain two ethical advantages of using structed interviews in research

  Ethical advantage 1

  · Informed consent.

  · Research today has to conform to the General Data Protection Regulation and Data Protection Act 2018. As the GDPRDPA states "Silence, pre-ticked boxes or inactivity" is presumed inadequate to signal consent. The default assumption is therefore that all research must involve an 'opt in' consent procedure.

  · Thus, in carrying out interviews, the researcher has to first create a consent form.

  · A consent form is a document which both

  o Informs the interviewee as to what the purpose of the research is, so they are fully informed of the research's purpose

  o Informs them that they can withdraw from the research at any point

  o Informs them that if they are not happy with the research, any data on them will not be used in the study.

  · Thus, the interviewee is not deceived or manipulated.

  · Some respondents are especially vulnerable, such as students who cannot properly consent. Interviews with them should only go ahead when you have first properly consulted a relevant expert/ your research supervisor, and secondly their legal guardian, which in the case of most students, would be their parents.

  · The method also conforms to the expectations of the British Sociological Association.

  
  

  Ethical advantage 2

  · Minimising for harm. The SI maintain a distance between the researcher and respondents which minimises the possibility of

  o causing affront or

  o being placed in danger.

  · SIs tend to ask questions about facts, shallower themes such as who they vote for, or how often they see their family. Things that will not upset them or cause offence.

  · This is because SIs are only suitable for gathering straightforward factual information such as a person's age or job, as Young and Willmott did with their study of extended family networks in east London in the 1960s.

  · Thus, SIs keep a distance between the researcher and interviewee, and do no thus probe on sensitive issues, such as questions of political beliefs, illegal behaviour, sexual behaviour, health, or ethnicity, or traumatic events which could trigger PTSD.

  · Obviously, consent forms are always used in SI research, enabling the interviewee to withdraw from research an any point.

  · Likewise, particular attention is also paid to the confidentiality and data management of all data, since any data breach could be very harmful to interviewees and their relationships if it was to enter the public domain before they could be anonymised.
• Outline and explain two ethical limitaiojns of using unstructed interviews in reserach


  Ethical limitation 1

  · Ethical problems associated with developing a close relationship with an interviewee. They may offer 'guilty knowledge' or feel pressurised into revealing more than they want to.

  · The in depth nature of UIs helps the researcher develop a rapport with the interviewee.

  · Consequently, the interviewee will build up a stronger, trusting bond with the researcher, and may feel under pressure to reveal 'secrets' / information which they suspect the researcher wants, since the researcher has invested so much time and energy into their relationship.

  · Moreover, if the researcher is investigating law breaking, UIs encourage trust and openness, as noted earlier, and this may lead the interviewee to provide the researcher with 'guilty knowledge', for example, crimes they had got away with or were planning to commit.

  · The sociologist is now in an ethical dilemma - should they breach confidentiality and inform the police?

  · Maguire (2007) in research street criminal networks, made it a rule never to record particularly sensitive information, such as that relating to offences the interviewee had committed to maintain trust and keep the research alive.

  · Likewise, in researching an oral history of paramilitaries involved in 'The Troubles' in Northern Ireland, Boston College gave paramilitaries who took part a pledge of confidentiality - so they told the truth. But it meant the sociologists had to cope with knowing terrible things, for which there would be no justice.

  · These approaches would still be considered unethical since they have not passed on information to the police.

  
  

  Ethical limitation 2

  · Using UIs can create the risk of harm, to both the interviewee and researcher.

  · Going over unpleasant experiences may generate psychological harm for the interviewee.

  · Often UIs are used to research more sensitive topics, such as sexual behaviour, experiences of crime such as domestic violence, or any other type of traumatic event, is fraught with the danger of triggering stress/ PTSD.

  · The researcher needs to flag this up with participants early on.

  · Special consideration should clearly be paid to making sure that the interviewees are fully informed ahead of time of the nature of the research and are given plenty of time to think before deciding whether or not to become involved.

  · They should also be reminded during the research that they are free to terminate their participation at any point.

  · If PTSD / stress could be triggered by research, the researcher should provide for support and counselling services to those who need it.

  · For example, Dobash and Dobash first of all gained consent from the female victims of domestic violence to be interviewed about their violent experiences. The women were also offered counselling by professionals who formed part of their team.

  · Another risk is harm to the researcher. When Hoyle was researching domestic abuse, and interviewing women in their homes, she had a police constable accompany her for her own safety, in case the violent ex came back.

  · Paradoxically this created a new ethical dilemma: that it created greater risk of further violence against the victim.
• Outline and explain two theoretical advantages of using SI in research


  Theoretical advantage 1

  · Positivists see SIs as a reliable method. This means SIs can be repeated by other researchers in exactly the same way, and, unless the respondents have changed their minds in the meantime, they should get the same/ similar results.

  · Seeking to take a more scientific approach, positivists value the standardised nature of administering questionnaires through SIs.

  · In the SI, the researcher used a 'fixed interviewing schedule'. This means that interviewees are each asked the same set list of questions usually with fixed answer categories and pitched to all potential respondents. This means that everyone is responding to the same questions in similar ways.

  · This means the quantitative data produced can be analysed easily for patterns and trends from which causal relationships can be drawn.

  · This fits the hypothesis-testing approach advocated by positivists.

  
  

  Theoretical advantage 2

  · Representative data

  · A key strength of SIs is that they can use sampling methods which generate very accurate and representative large samples of people to be interviewed.

  · Because SIs can collect information from a large number of people, the results stand a better chance of being truly representative of the wider population than with other methods that study only very small numbers of people, such as participant observation.

  · SIs in school research are very useful for gathering large quantities of basic educational information quickly and cheaply.

  · For example, Michael Rutter (1979) used questionnaires to collect large quantities of data from 12 inner London secondary schools. From this, he was able to correlate achievement, attendance and behaviour with variables such as school size, class size and number of staff. It would have been very difficult to do this with more labour-intensive methods such as interviewing or observation.

  · Positivists really like this aspect of SIs since they prefer working with large amounts of data, in which can be generalised from, and hypotheses tested &/ developed.
• Outline and explain two theoretical limitations of using SI in reaesrch


  Theoretical limitation 1

  · One theoretical limitation of structured interviews (SI) from an interpretivist perspective, is that the data generated lacks validity, and that instead, SIs produce a false picture of the subjects they are trying to study.

  · One reason SI's produce invalid data is because they use predominately pre-coded questions, i.e. the researcher decides which questions are asked, in what way and with what response categories, so arguably their world-view is being imposed on that of respondents.

  · Another is that there is no ability to ask follow-up questions, which also stops the researcher gaining an authentic version of the respondent's attitudes and behaviour.

  · Moreover, SIs give interviewers very little freedom to explain questions or clarify misunderstandings. For example, they may be given one alternative form of words to use if the interviewee doesn't understand the question, but if this fails to do the trick the interviewer usually has to move on to the next question.

  · Since SIs do not develop trust, people may lie or exaggerate.

  · Finally, since the interview is a social interaction between interviewer and interviewee, there is always a risk this will influence the answers given. For example, gender and ethnic differences can affect the answers, as can the interviewee's desire to be seen in a favourable light.

  · Thus, interpretivists conclude that SI data lacks meaning and validity.

  
  

  Theoretical limitation 2

  · Feminists see SIs as reinforcing patriarchy.

  · Many feminists dislike SI approaches which they argue subordinates the role of the interviewee in a way that reflects that of women. As a result, they see SIs as a form of patriarchal control.

  · For example, Graham (1983) argued that SIs are patriarchal since they give a distorted, invalid picture of women's experience. She gave a variety of reasons for this, that:

  · The researcher is in control of the interview and decides the line of questioning to be followed. This mirrors women's subordination in wider society.

  · Survey methods treat women as isolated individuals rather than seeing them in the context of the power relationships that oppress them.

  · Surveys impose the researcher's categories on women, making it difficult for them to express their experiences and concealing the unequal power relationships between the sexes.

  · These feminist criticisms are similar to those put forward by interpretivist sociologists. Graham argues that sociologists need to use methods that allow the researcher to understand women's behaviour, attitudes and meanings. She therefore advocates the use of direct observation instead.
• Outline and explain two theoretical advantages of using UI in research

  Theoretical advantage 1

  · One theoretical advantage of unstructured interviews (UI) from an interpretivist perspective, is that the method is excellent in the hands of a trained interviewer with good interpersonal skills for getting valid data on sensitive topics.

  · The more relaxed and informal nature of the unstructured interviews (UI) allows a rapport to be built between the researcher and the interviewee.

  · This rapport or sense of greater trust is likely to generate data which is higher in validity as the interviewee is more likely to open up and offer personal insights into their life.

  · This generates in-depth data of a qualitative kind with the interviewee using their own words to describe their feelings and actions.

  · A great example of how UIs can develop a strong rapport with interviewees and thus gain rich and valid data is Ann Oakley's famous study of pregnant women 'From Here to Maternity'. The women trusted her so much, that they told her very sensitive information, such as how 70% of them informed her they 'were not interested' on holding their new-born baby for the first time (contrary to popular common-sense myth).

  · Likewise, Labov, in his research of black American children's speech, abandoned a formal approach and adopted a more relaxed, informal style of UI, sitting on the floor, as well as allowing the black students he was interviewing to have a friend present. As a result, he got a completely different response: the children opened up and spoke freely, showing that they were competent speakers.

  · Thus, such rapport is particularly important when researching sensitive subjects such as bullying, domestic abuse and the policing of crime, if you want a valid picture.

  
  

  Theoretical advantage 2

  · Another theoretical advantage of unstructured interviews (UI) from an interpretivist perspective, is that UIs are good for gaining the interviewee's view, which again makes the data generated having greater validity.

  · Because it is a flexible method and thus there are no set questions, UIs allow the interviewee more opportunity to speak about those things they think are important. This contrasts with the structured interview, where the researcher decides in advance what questions are worth asking and limits interviewees to a fixed range of possible answers.

  · By allowing them greater freedom to express their views, an unstructured interview is more likely to produce fresh insights and valid data.

  · Similarly, the interviewer's probing can help formulate and develop interviewees' thoughts more clearly.

  · In their study of claimants' experiences of unemployment, Dean and Taylor-Gooby (1992) used UIs, which enabled the interviewees the freedom to talk in their own terms about the issues that concern them, such as struggling to eat enough food or heat their homes.

  · As a result, UIs gain the interviewee's view: how they see their world, how they interpret and give their world meaning. Which is why it is preferred by interpretivists - who seek to use methods which help them practice what Weber terms 'verstehen', to enable them to understand the world through the eyes of others.

  · This results in a more complete and authentic picture which means the data produced is higher in validity than would otherwise be the case.
• Outline and explain two theoretical limitations of using UI in research


  Theoretical limitation 1

  · Unrepresentative data.

  · The longer timescale means that fewer interviews will be carried out and the smaller sample thus reduces the likelihood that the study will be representative.

  · For example, Ann Oakley interviewed 55 women 4 times each in Here to Maternity, with each interview lasting 2.36 hours.

  · Dobash and Dobash's research into domestic violence involved interviewing 109 women, each lasting between 2 to 12 hours long.

  · Moreover, having done the interviews, the researcher will then have to type up transcripts for each interview, which will take even longer. And then, after that, analyse the data and write it up into a report.

  · Thus, the samples interviewed in UIs are small.

  · From a positivist perspective, this is a major weakness of UIs as researchers are unable to generalise from a small, unrepresentative sample. As a result, no patterns are thus proven, no theories can be tested.

  
  

  Theoretical advantage 2

  · Unreliable.

  · Unstructured interviews are not reliable because they are not standardised

  · The flexibility of UIs also means that no UI is the same, as each takes its own unique course, thus reducing the reliability of the interview.

  · Unlike SIs, they do not ask pre-coded questions, in a fixed order with fixed set of answers.

  · Each interview is unique: interviewers are free to ask different questions in each case if they feel it is relevant to do so.

  · This makes it virtually impossible for another researcher to replicate the interviews and check the findings or compare them with their own.

  · This lack of replicability means that data from UIs cannot be directly compared.

  · Which is another reason why positivists reject them.
• Outline and explain two advantages of using group interviews in reaesrch


  Advantage 1

  · Validity.

  · One key problem facing researchers are status and power inequalities between researcher and interviewee.

  · Inequalities between interviewer and interviewee may affect the interviewee's honesty or willingness to answer. In general, the bigger the status difference, the less valid the data. For example, Josephine Rich (1968) shows that when adults interview children, the child's need to please the interviewer will affect their answers.

  · Group interviews offer a researcher the opportunity to get around this problem and gain a deeper understanding by encouraging a group to discuss the research issue.

  · Greene and Hogan argue that group interviews are particularly suitable for use with pupils.

  · Pupils may feel more comfortable being with others and thus more likely to open up.

  · They create a safe peer atmosphere, and they reproduce the small group settings that young people are familiar with in classroom work.

  · Peer support also reduces the power imbalance between adult interviewer and young interviewee found in one-to-one interviews.

  · Thus the data is more valid, something interpretivists like.

  
  

  Advantage 2

  · New insights.

  · Group interviews can reveal the interactions between pupils.

  · Researchers can also watch the group dynamic for further insights.

  · They can be a useful way of generating initial ideas that can be followed up in later research.

  · The researcher can combine questioning with the opportunity to observe group dynamics and norms.

  · For example, Paul Willis's group interviews with 'the lads' shows how their interactions with each other reinforce their opposition to authority.

  · As a sociologist, you may gain a first hand view of how the students act together in their subculture, gaining confidence to be their true selves.

  · This can throw up new insights, something which interpretivists like, and which is central to 'grounded theory' in which sociological theory arises out of research, from the 'bottom up'.
• Outline and explain two limiations of using group interviews


  Limitation 1

  · Lacking in validity.

  · In a group interview, one or two individuals may dominate thus preventing a full range of responses from emerging.

  · Moreover, it is difficult to know whether the views expressed are genuinely shared or simply the product of students egging each other on to say similar things.

  · Peer pressure may influence individuals to give answers that conform to the group's values, rather than expressing their true opinions. For example, in Paul Willis' interviews with 'The Lads', Spanksy begins to express a different view of teachers from the other lads, but then conforms to the group's anti-authority values.

  · This is especially the case since there are bound to be power and status inequalities which will affect the outcome of group interviews with students. Interviewers are usually adults and children may see them as authority figures. This is even more likely in educational research, especially if the interviews are conducted on school premises. In this situation, Bell (1981) notes, pupils may see the interviewer as a 'teacher in disguise'. This may affect the validity of the data in several ways

  · Students, even in group interviews, may seek to win the 'teacher's' approval by giving untrue but socially acceptable answers that show them in a favourable light, for example about how much time they spend on homework.

  · They may also be less self-confident and their responses less articulate. All this will reduce the validity of the data.

  · Similarly, pupils are accustomed to adults 'knowing better' and so may defer to them in interviews. For example, children are more likely than adults to change their original answer when the question is repeated because they think it must have been wrong.

  · Some may hide difficult/ embarrassing thoughts/ views to themselves.

  
  

  Limitation 2

  · Researcher lacks the skills.

  · Group interviewing, more so than UI, requires a higher level of interviewer training in interpersonal skills in order to achieve empathetic understanding.

  · The interviewer has to be more highly trained in interpersonal skills to avoid their own unconscious biases and allow the voice of the interviewee to be heard.

  · Moreover, trying to manage a variety of personalities in the interview, and create an atmosphere in which all participants feel safe and able to talk freely is a difficult skill to master.

  · This training has a cost implication which feminists would see as a price well worth paying.
• Outline and explain two limitations of questionnaires


  · One limitation of questionnaires from an Interpretivist perspective, is that the data generated lacks validity.

  · This stems from the structured nature of the question-and-answer options. Questionnaires have fixed multiple choice answer options where the respondent has to choose one from a range decided by the creator of the questionnaire.

  · Interpretivists argue that these lack meaning and validity. The researcher imposes their chosen answer options on the respondent and with fixed response options there is no room for respondents to explain their answer. For example, in questionnaires about religion like the annual British Attitudes Survey many respondents chose the option of Christian although what this means can differ greatly between respondents.

  · Another limitation of questionnaires especially the self-completion type is the response rate.

  · If questionnaires are self-response then the researcher has no way of compelling respondents to complete the questionnaire which means that many potential respondents don't reply or only a particular type of person, for example one who has strong views on the issue or more free time reply.

  · This means the data collected is not representative of all the sampling frame and therefore cannot be generalised to a wider population. For example data from the 2015 UK time diary survey on housework had only a 50% response rate, those who didn't respond may have been people who were too busy especially women who the survey showed more still more time on unpaid housework compared to men.
• Outline and explain two advantages of questionnaires


  · One advantage of questionnaires according to Positivists is that they are very reliable

  · This is because the answer options are usually fixed with multiple choice options for the respondent to choose from.

  · This means that all respondents have to choose their response from the same set of fixed answers making the method standardised and replicable and therefore allows easy and accurate comparison between different answer options so the researcher can identify changes in trends and patterns overtime.

  · This allows sociologists studying social trends such as cohabitation and having children before marriage to be able to easily identify changes in attitudes overtime for example in the 2016 British Attitudes Survey on marriage they found that back in 1989, seven people in ten felt that people should be married if they want to have children, compared with less than two in ten in 2016.

  · Another advantage of questionnaires is they are a very ethically strong method due to the anonymity provided by self-completion questionnaires as these can be answered at home in private by the respondent.

  · This means that the respondent can answer honestly without fear of being identified by their name or social characteristics by the researcher when they publish their research.

  · This is especially important if the data being collected is on sensitive or potentially incriminating topics that could cause problems for the respondent if they are publicly identified. For example in the self-report study by Farrington 93% of the respondents who were teenage boys admitted to having committed crimes that they hadn't been caught or prosecuted for, this data can only be collected by using anonymous and confidential surveys.
• Outline and explain two strength of using OS in sociological reseach

  · One strength of official statistics (OS) as favoured by positivists is its true and objective measure of social phenomena and for testing hypotheses.

  · The statistical approach is primarily associated with taking a quantitative position. The representation of aspects of social reality in numerical form, tends to suggest 'hard social facts' in society that are there to be measured. Positivism works on one fundamental assumption that behaviour in the natural and social worlds is governed by the same principles. Human behaviour can be measured, and cause-and-effect relationships developed to the point where it will be possible to construct laws and even predictions about human behaviour.

  · Durkheim argued that sociological research should adopt the procedures of the natural sciences by developing and testing hypotheses to discover patterns of behaviour, through the scientific method. The data collected are objective facts not distorted by the value judgements of the researcher. Durkheim followed this approach in his study of suicide that looked at official statistics to identify what the causes of suicide were. He drew up classifications of behaviour (e.g. suicide rates) to make it possible to test hypotheses about the relationship between social phenomena.

  
  

  Strength 2

  · A further strength of using OS is they can identify trends and patterns as the statistics are collected at regular intervals over time.

  · The world does not stand still and will change over time. OS need to be designed for everyday life and a recurrent theme is that it's not just the numbers that are important but the story that goes with them and their implications. Positivists argue OS are produced in a professionally independent way based on scientific methods and procedures and the strong comparative advantage is its unique selling point.

  · The success of OS is their value to influence and lead governments to make decisions that are well informed. OS help us to understand who we are, have been and are becoming; the 'before and after story'. They tell us trends over a long-time span and examine the influence of government policies on the changes in the country with demography, health, changes in crime rates, educational achievement, family diversity and the economy. Over time, they weave a compelling narrative that charts the pace and nature of change in society.

  · OS trends also offer a global picture. UNECE (2018) argue OS are needed for public policy and service delivery, measuring national and international progress, legislative requirements, and international reporting obligations. They also facilitate scrutinizing and holding any government to account.
• Outline and explain two limitations of using official stats in sociological research

  Limitation 1

  · The first limitation of Official Statistics (OS) as stated by interpretivist theorists is to reject the argument that science, the scientific method and scientific knowledge are neutral, objective facts, as presented in OS. They repudiate the positivistic view that the social world is predictable where human social behaviour is patterned and generalisable, and that OS capture this.

  · Interpretivists take a different view of things. Social phenomena exist on the sufferance of wilful individuals. There are no underlying scientific rules or laws. Human social behaviour can't be accurately measured with the same tools as those of the natural scientist (OS).

  · People have opinions and talk back. People socially construct the world in which they live. Where the positivist sees an ordered world of predictable regularities, the interpretivist sees an underlying disarray and wide range of behaviours that can't be foreseen. What people do is 'determined' by each particular situation they find themselves in. Transforming people's opinions and behaviours into operational categories like 'strongly agree' and 'votes labour' and turning what people say into tables and graphs, as with OS, yields only a partial, possibly distorted view of reality. In that respect, they believe qualitative data puts the human detail and texture back into sociological research.

  · Unlike positivists, interpretivists don't believe in an external, 'out there', social world whose nature is amenable to quantifiable measurements like OS. The social world we inhabit is what we define it to be.

  
  

  Limitation 2

  · A further limitation of OS is they cannot be taken at face value as a true, valid record of human social behaviour. They are socially constructed and may also be politically biased so do not reflect reality.

  · Interpretivists argue that OS are the product of a process of interpretation and decision-making by those who manage the research process, and by those with authority. So, in fact do they measure the phenomenon they are trying to measure?

  · Soft OS tend to give a clearer picture of how the evidence can be invalid. If you look at crime statistics as an example, you start to see how the records are compiled by a number of individuals and state agencies that neither make the statistics accurate or complete.

  · Crime statistics generally come from three main sources - crimes known to the police, crimes reported by victims in British Crime Surveys and crimes owned up to in self-reporting surveys. Taken together, these and other sources still probably underestimate the actual extent of crime (dark figure), mainly due to under-reporting by victims. They also don't provide a complete picture of how crime is committed by different sections of society because, for example, of selective law enforcement. As these crime statistics are published by the state, it is argued they may be 'massaged' further to avoid political embarrassment to the government. For this reason, the validity of crime statistics must be treated with great circumspection

  and caution.
• Outline and explain two theorectical strengths of using OS in sociological research

  Strength 1

  · The first theoretical strength of Official Statistics (OS) is representativeness. This is important to positivists as it sets them up for making generalisations and testing hypotheses about society as a whole.

  · The sampling approach taken by the researcher is crucial in this process. If a sample is to be representative, all members of the population must have the same chance of being selected for the sample. One of the key stages in any social survey is the selection of the group of people to be studied (the 'population'). Then finding a suitable sampling frame (e.g. from the electoral register) and deciding on the sample size which will be dependent on the amount of time and money available. It is vital that the sample selected should be as representative as possible. The more accurate and representative the sample the more valid the responses, and so the conclusions, are likely to be.

  · In some cases, with the timing and funding available extensive research can take place. Government-backed funding often favours quantitative data gathered through large-scale surveys. This may allow research to cover the whole population as with the 2021 Census, so very representative and generalisable. This survey is mandatory and takes place every 10 years, covers all the people and households in England and Wales and helps paint a picture of the country and how we live. They provide a snapshot of the population and its characteristics and underpin funding allocation to help organisations make decisions on planning and funding public services in your area, including education, healthcare and transport.

  
  

  Strength 2

  · A further theoretical strength of OS is reliability. Positivists assume that OS are reliable, objective 'social facts' that have been collected by following scientific procedures and methods to collect quantitative data. Knowledge that's confirmed through repeat testing.

  · Most surveys aim to collect reliable evidence. That is to say, 'anybody else using this method, or the same person using it at another time, would come up with the same results' (McNeil 1992). Reliability can also be checked if the same question is repeated in a different way during a survey.

  · As OS may be created from official surveys, they will be carried out by using a standardised measuring tool (e.g. written questionnaire). Closed/fixed-choice question types are used as they are much easier to classify, code and quantify. The 2021 Census is an example of this as each person in the population completed the same questions in the same order, so replication is achieved.

  · As the statisticians compile the findings following the same standard procedure the statistics should be reliable as each trained individual is allocating the findings in the same way. Registration of births, marriages and deaths is a further example of hard OS being compiled using the same categories, regardless of who is registering these.
• Outline and explain two strengths of personal documents


  · One practical strength of personal documents is they may be the only source of data available when studying some topics. It may be costly or impossible to research some subjects without the use of personal documents.

  · One example where personal documents may be useful would be the study of suicide. The use of diaries or notes written by those who have committed suicide may form a vital source of qualitative data to help a researcher understand their meaning and motives behind the act.

  · Additionally, when looking at historical issues, personal documents could provide valuable insight into subjects that could no longer be researched in the modern day. Anne Frank's diary would be an example of a personal document that provided a rich insight into the personal life at a particular time in history. Written in real time the diary would offer rich data rather than relying on memory of an event.

  · Personal documents might also offer the practical opportunity to compare past and present.

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Strength 2

  · Theoretically, personal documents are favoured by interpretivists as the data is high in validity. The data from personal documents is high in validity due to the insight it offers.

  · The nature of personal documents means the data are first-person, qualitative and in-depth. Personal documents can include diaries, letters, photographs, and autobiographies. The personal nature of all these sources gives a rich insight into the life of the author.

  · Using sources that contain personal qualitative information enables a researcher to gain a deep understanding of the author's world view. Since they may not have been produced for the purpose of the research but as part of the authors lived experience, they give an authentic version of events. For example, using documents may help to understand the meaning of an experience such as migration as in Thomas and Znaniecki's study of Polish migrants to America. This study included the use of letters and autobiographies of migrants.

  · The validity is increased due to the personal nature of documents and that they were not created for a specific audience or research purpose, but rather as an account of the experience of an individual's life.
• Outline and explain two limitations of personal documents

  Limitation 1

  · Positivists would reject the use of personal documents. Personal documents do not offer generalisability or representativeness.

  · Personal documents are often individual, particularly in the case of diaries and autobiographies. This means they do not offer a wider picture of society and so findings cannot be generalised to a wider population. For example, when looking at diaries or letters, these will only exist for those who are literate. Not all members of society write a diary even if they are literate.

  · There is no way of knowing if a personal document is representative of a wider picture of society. A diary may not contain a typical lived experience of the majority of a society. Additionally, diaries written by public figures although rich in data, may have been written with a public audience in mind and so may demonstrate their desire view rather than an authentic account.

  
  

  Limitation 2

  · There may also be problems when assessing documentary sources. A personal diary is not standardised and so not reliable.

  · Since these are qualitative sources, a researcher will use their own interpretation when assessing documents. For positivists, this is a limitation as the researcher may impose their own meaning on this analysis. This prevents a value-free assessment of the personal document.

  · Due to the qualitative nature of the data in a personal document, different sociologists may make different interpretations of the document. A letter or diary that is written for personal reasons requires a researcher to understand what the meaning was for the author. There may also be problems of the use of language. This may include translation if a foreign language is used. When looking at historical documents, the meanings of words may change over time and this could affect the interpretation of the document.
• Outline and explain two limitaions of using experiments in research

  Limitation 1

  · Validity - Interpretivists would argue that Laboratory experiments lack validity as it is not possible for the researcher to control all the variables that might affect the participants behaviour, e.g. mood, previous experience etc.

  · Artificial situation - laboratories are controlled conditions that simplify any social interaction, so what happens may have little relevance to the 'real world', meaning the findings lack ecological validity.

  · Demand characteristics - as participants are aware that they are taking part in a Laboratory experiment they may not act as they usually do, causing a validity issue. Elton Mayo found this in study, often referred to as the Hawthorne Effect.

  · Control - it is impossible to control all of the many variables that can influence human behaviour, making cause an effect impossible to establish, rendering the method pointless for studying social behaviour.

  · Deterministic - Positivists do not take into account that humans have free will, and therefore they are less predictable than other things that might be studied in laboratories.

  
  

  
  

  Limitation 2

  · Lacking representativeness

  · Due to small sample size being used in laboratory experiments, the results will not be representative of others in the target population, therefore generalisations are not possible.

  · Thus laboratory experiments only give a 'snapshot of human behaviour', a moment in time, whereas social behaviour happens over a period of time, which is not possible to study in a controlled environment.

  · Laboratory experiments are also unsuitable for studying past events, since they cannot be set up in the past. Limits their usefulness when trying to understand what caused a social phenomenon.

  
  

  Enhance your answer with examples from the following laboratory experiments:

  · Bandura - Bobo doll experiment

  Harvey and Slatin - teacher expectations
• Outline and explain two strengths of field experiments


  Strength 1

  · Cause and effect relationships - positivists favour this method since the researcher can manipulate the IV and measure the effect it has on the DV in a field experiment, making it possible for patterns and trends to be identified and laws of behaviour established.

  · This can be used to estimate the impact of social policies, teaching strategies, health initiatives etc.

  · For example, the main way to evaluate the impact of a crime reduction strategy is to compare the results of the intervention with a similar area in which there is no intervention. This direct comparison reveals something about the effectiveness of a particular crime reduction strategy.

  · This also contributes to greater reliability in that the method could be applied again to different crime reduction strategies to see which is most effective.

  
  

  Strength 2

  · Validity

  · It is carried out in the natural environment of the participants, meaning the behaviour is likely to be a true reflection of the participants' usual actions, increasing the ecological validity of the study.

  · For example, Rosenhan's 'pseudopatient' field experiment took place in a real psychiatric hospital with real medical staff etc.

  · Experimenter bias is also less likely to be an issue, since the participants may not be aware that they are taking part in an experiment, so they are unaffected by expectations of the researcher, so there will be less demand characteristics.

  
  

  Enhance your answer with examples from the following field experiments:

  · Sissons - bystander behaviour

  · Rosenthal and Jacobsen - Pygmalion in the classroom
• Outline and explain of two limiations of field experiments


  Limitation 1

  · Lack of control affects the reliability, representativeness and even the validity of the research.

  · It is hard to control extraneous variables since the experiment is taking place in the natural environment, which the researcher has little control over.

  · Reduces the internal validity of the findings, since it is not clear if the changes in the DV are due to the IV or something else.

  · Lacks representativeness - opportunity sampling tends to be way that participants are chosen (simply available at the time), so they may not be representative of the rest of the target population, so generalisations can't be made.

  · This also means that studies may lack reliability. A lack of control means that each experimental situation will have its own unique elements making the research impossible to replicate.

  · For example, Rosenthal and Jacobsen's experiment was repeated hundreds of times but never in exactly the same way as many educators were aware of the subterfuge they used to set up teacher expectations.

  
  

  Limitation 2

  · Many ethical issues.

  · There is a lack of informed consent as in attempting to maintain the natural situation those involved will not be asked for consent in advance as this would reduce the validity of the results.

  · For example, The medical staff in Rosenhan's experiment were not informed about the real nature of the researchers planted in the hospitals as this would have affected how these 'pseudopatients' were treated.

  · Similarly, there may be an invasion of privacy in a field experiment, since participants are unknowingly being studied and do not have the opportunity to withdraw themselves or their data. Protecting the validity of the research compromises the rights of those who are unknowingly participating.

  · Even the offer of a post-experimental debrief may be insufficient. For example, Rosenthal and Jacobsen's classroom experiments affected the educational experiences of young children and no debrief could possibly compensate for this.

  
  

  Enhance your answer with examples from the following field experiments:

  · Sissons - bystander behaviour

  · Rosenthal and Jacobsen - Pygmalion in the classroom