Interactionist

• What do labelling/interactionist theorists reject about official statistics on crime?

  They claim they are a social construction and underestimate crime.
• What do labelling/interactionist theorists focus on instead of structural causal explanations of crime?


  They focus on how crime and deviance are socially constructed.
• What qualitative approaches do labelling/interactionist theorists prefer to study crime and deviance?

  They prefer informal interviews, observation, and personal documents.
• Who maintains that crime and deviance are based on subjective decisions made by moral entrepreneurs?

  Becker (1963).
• How do powerful agencies of social control influence deviance according to Becker?

  They label certain behaviors as deviant.
• What example does Becker provide to illustrate the social construction of mental illness?

  Psychiatrists have 'created' mental illnesses such as nightmare disorder.
• Who argues that the idea of 'juvenile delinquency' was created by upper-class Victorian moral entrepreneurs?

  Platt (1969).
• According to Becker, how does crime and deviance vary?

  It varies over time and between cultures.
• Give an example of how deviance is viewed differently in various countries.

  Prostitution is illegal in the UK but legal in Germany and the Netherlands.
• What do ethnomethodologists argue about deviance?

  They argue that 'deviance is in the eye of the beholder.'
• How do art critics illustrate the subjective nature of deviance?

  Some see conceptual artists' work as deviant, while others celebrate it.
• What does Becker claim about the extent and distribution of crime and deviance?

  It is shaped by selective law enforcement.
• According to Becker, what factors influence whether a deviant is labelled?


  It depends on who committed the act and the negotiations between social actors.
• Who is more likely to be labelled as deviant according to Becker?

  Powerless groups, including the young.
• What do official statistics reveal about the likelihood of being stopped and searched by police?

  Blacks are seven times more likely to be stopped and searched than whites.
• What does Circourel (1968) suggest about the use of official statistics?


  They should be used as a 'topic' to investigate further.
• What did Piliavin & Briar (1964) find regarding police decisions to arrest youth?

  Arrests were based on physical cues such as manner and dress.
• How can labelling by powerful agencies affect deviance according to Becker?


  It can amplify deviance through societal reactions.
• What is a 'master status' in the context of labelling theory?

  It is a label that dominates how others perceive an individual.
• What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in relation to labelling theory?

  It occurs when the labelled individual accepts the deviant label and acts accordingly.
• How does Goffman (1968) support Becker's claims about labelling?

  He highlights how societal reactions lead to mortification and stigma.
• What criticism does Fuller (1984) make about labelling theory?


  She argues that it is too deterministic and does not account for resistance to labels.
• How did the 'non-conformist' girls in Fuller's study respond to negative teacher labelling?

  They rejected the labelling and used it as motivation for success.
• What distinction does Lemert (1951) make regarding deviance?

  He distinguishes between primary and secondary deviance.
• What is primary deviance according to Lemert?

  It is deviance that has not been labelled and has few consequences.
• What happens once deviance is labelled according to Lemert?

  It becomes secondary deviance and affects the individual significantly.
• How does societal reaction through the media amplify deviance?

  It creates moral panics that increase social control and deviance.
• What empirical support does Young (1971) provide regarding labelling and deviant subcultures?


  Hippies in Notting Hill developed a deviant subculture after being labelled.
• What social policy solutions does labelling theory suggest regarding laws?

  Agencies should make and enforce fewer laws, such as decriminalizing 'soft' drugs.
• What does Braithwaite (1989) argue about crime rates and shaming methods?

  Crime rates tend to be lower in societies with reintegrative shaming.
• What do interactionists criticize about Durkheim's study of suicide?

  They criticize his reliance on official statistics.
• What qualitative methods do interactionists like Douglas advocate for studying suicide?

  They advocate for analyzing suicide notes and conducting unstructured interviews.
• What do interactionists aim to uncover by analyzing suicide notes?

  They aim to discover the true meaning behind the labels attached to deaths.
• Why do interactionists reject official statistics on mental illness?

  They regard them as social constructs.
• What do interactionists argue about the nature of crime, suicide, and mental illness statistics?

  They argue these statistics are artefacts created by humans, not objective facts.
• What does Lemert's (1962) study of paranoia illustrate about labelling?

  It shows how primary deviance leads to secondary deviance through social exclusion.
• What do other sociological approaches accuse interactionists of regarding official statistics?


  They accuse interactionists of too readily dismissing them.
• What do realists argue about the usefulness of official statistics?

  They argue that while biased, they show the basic reality of crime.
• What do Marxists argue about the power dynamics in labelling theory?

  They argue it has a weak view of power and social control.
• How do Marxists view the relationship between law creation and social control?

  They argue it protects the interests of the ruling class.