3. Other Domestic Reforms

• What was local government like before 1855?

  Answers:

  • There was no elected local government.
  • Landowners exercised political and judicial control over their estates and their serfs.
  • Provincial governors were appointed by the Tsar to administer local districts in Russia.
• What reforms concerning local government were introduced under Alexander II?

  Answers:

  • In November 1863, Alexander instructed a commission to make recommendations by the end of the year.
  • In January 1864, a decree was passed establishing the zemstva (local elected councils), which were responsible for public education, public health, local economic development, road building, water supplies, and fire prevention.
  • The zemstva were two-tiered, with district and provincial zemstva. The district zemstva elected delegates to represent them at the provincial level.
• What reforms concerning local government were introduced under Alexander II (card two)?

  Answers:

  • Provincial zemstva were dominated by the nobility, with seats divided into three classes: 45% nobility, 40% peasants, and 15% townsmen and clergy.
  • In 1870, a Municipal Statute set up a similar system in towns. A town duma was elected by Russian male property owners over 25.
  • These reforms did not extend to Poland, the Caucasus or Siberia.
• What were the limitations to the local government reforms?

  Answers:

  • Zemstva were dominated by the nobility.
  • They only had limited powers to approve local community projects. Levying state and local taxes, appointing officials, and maintaining law and order stayed in the hands of officials nominated by the Tsar.
  • Did not lead to a National Assembly as Alexander was not prepared to give up his autocratic power.
  • Didn't treat all groups equally as local taxes continued to favour the nobles, not the peasants.
  • The Municipal Statute did not give them control over the police.
• What was the legal system like before 1855?

  Answers:

  • There were many different types of court, including separate courts for different classes.
  • Judges and officials were poorly educated and badly trained.
  • Cases were subject to long delays of up to 10 years.
  • The police had powers to try cases as well as investigate and arrest.
  • Punishments were brutal and sentences were long.
  • Any accused persons did not have the right to speak.
  • Noble evidence was given more credibility than evidence from other classes.
  • Corruption was rife.
• What legal reforms were introduced under Alexander II?

  Answers:

  • Legal reforms were all introduced in 1864.
  • A five-tier system of courts was made, with the lower tier (the volost) replacing the role of the local serf owners and dealt exclusively with peasants. The higher tier court dealt with more serious cases, and there was a final court of appeal, the Senate.
  • Judicial salaries were increased to prevent the appeal of bribes.
  • Trials became public, trial by jury was introduced, and defendants were given a right of appeal.
• What legal reforms were introduced under Alexander II (card two)?

  Answers:

  • Evidence was presented in person and there was a right of cross examination.
  • Justices of the Peace were elected by the zemstva for 3 years.
  • Judges were nominated by the Tsar, but once appointed were very hard to dismiss, helping to guarantee judicial independence.
  • Corporal punishment was reduced and prison sentences shortened.
• Due to the legal reforms, how many more cases as expected were heard?

  3 times as many.
• What were the limitations of the introduced legal reforms?

  Answers:

  • There was a shortage of trained lawyers, with many still influenced by the government.
  • Some corruption as the government controlled who was promited.
  • Trial by jury was not enforced in Poland, the western provinces, and the Caucasus.
  • Separate volost court kept peasantry outside the judicial system so they were seen as a separate group with no equality before the law.
  • The authorities could still use the powers of administrative arrest and special courts for certain crimes.
  • The jury often acted to reduce the sentence.
• Who was in charge of the military reforms introduced under Alexander II?

  Miliutin
• What was the Russian military like before 1855?

  Answers:

  • The command structure was inflexible and inefficient.
  • Punishment was brutal.
  • Conscription was 25 years, leading to evasion of service, apathy, and low morale.
  • Tactics were old-fashioned and the emphasis was on drill and parades.
• What military reforms were introduced under Alexander II?

  Answers:

  • The length of conscription was reduced to 16 years in 1859.
  • 10 regional command centres were set up between 1862-1864 to decentralise administration and supply and improve efficiency. This rose to 15 by 1881.
  • Extreme punishments were abolished, and the Military Code revised.
  • Army schools (Junker schools) were set up. Anyone could apply, promoting meritocracy.
• When was the Manifesto and Statute on Universal Military Service published?

  1874
• What did the Manifesto and Statute on Universal Military Service state?

  Answers:

  • All classes were now liable for conscription and could not hire someone to take their place.
  • Conscription was ended as a punishment for criminals.
  • All men had to register at 21, and around 25% per year were chosen to serve.
  • Service was limited to 15 years, 7 on active service and 8 in reserves.
  • University students only had to serve 6 months, and those with a primary school education only had to serve 4 years.
• What were the successes of the military reforms?

  Answers:

  • The reduction in service meant the army became less of a drain on government expenditure, as the army and navy had counted for 45% of the spending in the 1846 budget.
  • Army was smaller, more professional, and less class-ridden, leading to success against Turkey in 1877.
  • 2-3 million soldiers were educated in the 1870s and 1880s.
  • In 1871, 12% of junker students were not from the nobility.
• What were the limitations of the military reforms?

  Answers:

  • Officers still tended to be aristocratic and some people could still be represented by substitutes.
  • Army was still based on peasant conscripts, and illiteracy rates remained high.
  • Problems with supply and provisioning remained.
  • Russia was defeated in the 1904-1905 war against Japan and the 1914-1917 war with Germany.
  • Reforms caused antagonism amongst army traditionalists and conservatives.
  • General Staff still had too many regulations and diverse tasks.
• Which people were in charge of the educational reforms under Alexander II?

  Answers:

  • To begin with, it was Golvonin.
  • In 1866, he was replaced with the more conservative Tolstoy.
• What educational reforms were introduced under Alexander II?

  Answers:

  • Between 1861-1881, the number of primary schools quadrupled.
  • The new schools were placed under the control of the Ministry of Education, rather than the church, which improved the quality of teaching and resources.
  • A reformed curriculum was introduced to the higher secondary schools (gymnasia) in 1871 emphasising Latin, Greek, and mathematics, and rote learning.
• What educational reforms were introduced under Alexander II (card two)?

  Answers:

  • In 1863, University Regulations were established. This allowed universities to administer themselves, and greater freedom in interpreting and delivering the curriculum.
  • Non-students could attend lectures, universities were allowed to reduce fees for poorer students, non-Russians could attend Russian universities, foreign texts were allowed and were not censored.
  • In 1872, Moscow University organised courses for women, as did 5 other universities in 1886. Women were allowed into St Petersburg Medical Academy.