Exam

• What is a placebo?


  A placebo is a substance or treatment that has no therapeutic effect, often used in medical research as a control group.
• Function of mitochondria


  • Powerhouse of the cell
  • Producing energy through respiration
• Function of Endoplasmic reticulum 


  • Network of membrange
  • Aiding in chemical reactions
• What is aerobic respiration

  • Uses energy
  • Releases 36 ATP
  • In the mitochondrial matrix
• Anaerobic respiration 


  • Without oxygen
  • 2 ATP
  • In the cytoplasm
• What is protein synthesis?


  Protein synthesis is the process by which cells build proteins using the instructions encoded in DNA.
• Where does protein synthesis occur?

  Ribosomes
• How are the alveoli of the lungs well suited to their gas exchange functions?


  • large internal surface area
  • well supplied with blood vessels
  • very thin walls
• Percentage composition of inhaled air


  Oxygen: 20.95%

  Carbon Dioxide: 0.04%
• Percentage composition of expired air


  Oxygen: 15.80%

  Carbon Dioxide: 4.30%
• How is oxygen transported in the blood?


  • 97% as oxyhemoglobin
  • 3% dissolved in plasma
• How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?


  • 70% as bicarbonate ions
  • 22% as carbaminohaemoglobin
  • 8% dissolved in plasma
• Red blood cells function

  • Contain haemoglobin, which is able to combine with oxygen
  • Have no nucleus, o there is more room for haemoglobin molecules
  • Are shaped like biconcave disks, increases the surface area for oxygen exchange
• Blood clotting


  1. Vasoconstriction - constriction of damaged blood vessels
  2. Platelet plug - Platelets stick to the wall of the damaged blood vessels very and attract more to the sight
  3. Coagulation - Protein called fibrin forms a mesh that traps the blood cells, platelets and plasma to form a clot
• Differences between arteries and veins


  • Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry it towards.
  • Arteries have a blood pressure that increases as the ventricles contract and decreases as the ventricles relax, veins have a constant relatively low blood pressure.
  • Arteries have thick, muscular, elastic walls. Veins have thin, relatively inelastic walls.
  • Arteries have no valves, veins often have valves
• What is a placebo?


  A placebo is a substance or treatment which is designed to have no therapeutic value.
• How can an experiments reliability and validity be improved?


  repeating trials, larger groups
• What does the Endoplasmic reticulum do?


  Helps move proteins and other materials around within the cell.
• aerobic respiration


  Respiration that requires oxygen, occurs in mitochondria, 36 ATP
• anaerobic respiration


  Respiration that does not require oxygen, in the cytoplasm, 2 ATP
• Aerobic equation


  glucose + oxygen -> energy + carbon dioxide + water
• Anaerobic equation


  Glucose -> energy + lactic acid
• What is protein synthesis?


  the process of making proteins by using the information present in the DNA
• left side of heart


  oxygenated blood
• right side of heart


  deoxygenated blood
• Direction of blood flow through the heart

  right atrium→right ventricle→out of heart→left atrium→left ventricle→out of heart
• Function of pulmonary circulation


  transfers deoxygenated blood to the lungs for gas exchange
• Direction of pulmonary circulation


  To the lungs
• function of systemic circulation


  supplies oxygen and nutrient rich blood to all body organs
• Direction of systemic circulation


  Away from lungs, to the body
• Cardiac Cycle: Diastole


  Ventricles relaxed

  Blood entering atria

  Blood flows through AV valves into ventricles

  Semilunar valves are closed
• Cardiac Cycle: Systole


  Ventricles contract

  Blood pushes against AV valves and they shut

  Blood pushes through semilunar valves into aorta and pulmonary trunk
• Forced elements of blood


  Erythrocytes

  Leukocytes

  Platelets

  Monocytes

  Neutrophils
• systolic pressure


  Blood pressure in the arteries during contraction of the ventricles.
• diastole pressure


  lowest arterial blood pressure reached during the diastolic phase of the cardiac cycle
• Functions of the lymphatic system


  fluid recovery, immunity, lipid absorption
• Secretion


  a process by which substances are produced and discharged from a cell, gland, or organ for a particular function in the organism or for excretion.
• Peristalsis


  Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.
• Where does absorption occur in the digestive system?


  small intestine and stomach
• What is a tendon?


  Connects muscle to bone