Term 4 rev

• Maguire et al. (2000) Aim

  To examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation.
• Maguire et al. (2000) Method

  Structural MRI scans were obtained. 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers participated; all had been driving for more than 1.5 years. Scans of 50 healthy right-handed males who did not drive taxis were included for comparison. The mean age did not differ between the two groups.
• Gedankien et al. (2023) Aim

  To investigate the role of acetylcholine in brain activity (oscillations) during a verbal episodic memory task
• Gedankien et al. (2023) Method

  Participants: 12 epilepsy patients treated in the university of texas

  IV: injected with either saline (control) or scopolamine (experimental) then repeated
• Maguire et al. (2000) Procedure

  Quasi-Experiment

  Compared the MRI brain scans

  Compared Voxel based morphometry to measure density of grey matter of hippocampus

  Pixel counting to calculate area of the hippocampus
• Maguire et al. (2000) Results

  It was found that the anterior hippocampus was smaller in the taxi drivers whilst the posterior hippocampus was larger in the taxi drivers compared to the control groups.
• Maguire et al. (2000) Link to Topic

  Localisation of function: supports the idea that not only is the hippocampus specialised for spatial memory but the posterior relates to spatial navigation using previously learnt information & the anterior for learning new information

  Neuroplasticity: supports the idea that the hippocampus changes in response to environmental demands, posterior increasing as taxi-d's navigate across London daily.
• Gedankien et al. (2023) procedure


  After Administration of scopolamine/saline, participants underwent a verbal episodic memory task — list of 12 words, short math distractor, free recall

  Total of 25 lists of 12 words per list
• Gedankien et al. (2023) results

  31% words recalled correctly for saline condition.

  10% words recalled correctly for scopolamine condition

  Performance did not differ in the math distractor task
• Gedankien et al. (2023) link to topic

  Established cause&effect of the scopolamine and episodic memory encoding

  Confirms that acetylcholine is critical for hippocampal memory formation

  Slow theta wave oscillations enable the hippocampus to encode episodic memory
• PET (Positron emission tomography)


  Uses radioactive glucose tracer.

  Often injected into a vein in the hand or arm.

  Tracer travels to areas of the brain most active (red colour)

  Least active (blue colour)

  Records levels of brain activity in different regions of the brain.
• PET STRENGTHS

  Detects abnormalities in brain functions

  Shows changes over time

  Useful for early diagnosis of disorders such as Alzheimer's Disease

  Generally low radiation - generally safe
• PET LIMITATIONS

  Expensive

  Sensitive

  Can cause some complications to specific patients -- e.g. pregnant women
• Hormones

  Chemical messengers secreted by glands

  Travel in blood stream

  Glands are apart of the endocrine system

  Affects behaviour

  Usually slow acting
• Cortisol


  "Stress" hormone

  Key function: restore homeostasis

  Regulates the bodies stress response

  Helps control metabolism

  Release by adrenal glands
• Cortisol and Memory

  Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands in response to stress and to restore homeostasis

  Chronic stress may result in prolonged cortisol secretion -- which can damage the immune system and impair memory
• Why is declarative memory impaired by high levels of cortisol?

  In times of high stress, cortisol directs energy away from non-essential functions, such as memory, to regions such as our muscles as part of the fight or flight response
• Milner (1966) aim

  To better understand the effects that the surgery had on patient HM.
• Milner (1966) method


  Participant: HM

  IV: Bilateral temporal lobectomy (removal of tissue from the medial temporal lobe including hippocampus on both sides of the brain)

  DV: HM's memory capabilities
• Milner (1966) procedure

  Psychometric testing: IQ test

  Direct observation of HM's behaviour

  Interviews with both HM and family members

  Cognitive testing: Memory recall tests as well as learning tasks (e.g. reverse mirror drawing)

  Corkin later did an MRI to determine the extent of damage done to HM's brain
• Milner (1966) results

  HM could not acquire new episodic knowledge and semantic knowledge

  Able to form a cognitive map of the spatial layout of his house

  Had capacity for working memory

  Procedural memories were well maintained

  Temporal lobe including hippocampus had the most damage
• Milner (1966) Link to topic

  Localisation of function:

  The hippocampus plays a critical role in converting memories of experiences from short-term memory to long-term memory.

  Hippocampus is a temporary rather than permanent memory store.

  Procedural memories are not stored in the hippocampus.

  Several different memory systems.

  Hippocampus important in storage of new memories, but not the only one involved.
• Newcomer et al. (1999) aim

  To investigate how levels of cortisol interfere with verbal declarative memory.
• Newcomer et al. (1999) method

  Participants: A volunteer sample of 51 'normal' and healthy people ages 18-30

  IV: Volume of cortisol -- 160mg, 40mg, 0mg

  DV: Verbal declarative memory

  Randomized, controlled and double blind
• Newcomer et al. (1999) Procedure

  3 conditions:

  1 - High level of cortisol (160mg)

  2 - Low level of cortisol (40mg)

  3 - A placebo

  All participants were asked to listen to and recall a prose paragraph.

  Each day they were given a different piece of prose with the same level of difficulty.

  Tested 3 times -

  First: tested before taking any cortisol (To establish a baseline)

  Second: tested 1 day after taking the pill

  Third: 4 days later

  EXTRA: 6 days later to ensure no long-term effect (ethical consideration)
• Newcomer et al. (1999) results

  The high-level group performed worse on the verbal declarative memory test than the low-level group and placebo group. They performed below placebo on day 1.
• Newcomer et al. (1999) link to topic

  The reason declarative memory is impaired wit high levels of cortisol is because in times of high stress, cortisol directs energy away from non-essential functions such as memory to regions such as out muscles as part of the fight or flight response.
• Chugani (1999) aim

  To investigate the glucose metabolism in infants.
• Chugani (1999) method

  Cross-sectional research design
• Chugani (1999) procedure

  PET scans: used to determine areas of brain activity in the infants

  Compared the PET scans between infants & toddlers of different ages
• High activity


  Brain stem -> Basic reflexes e.g. grasping
• Moderate activity


  Limbic system -> Core emotional development e.g. reading faces
• Low activity


  Cerebral cortex -> Executive function (carries out only basic task)
• Glucose metabolism in newborns brain is 30% lower than adults
• Babies brains develop from back to front (posterior to anterior)
• Frontal cortex (higher level processing) develops last
• Window of opportunity

  Period of max neuroplasticity & is a critical learning period
• Glucose metabolism, activity & neural growth is 2x+ better than adults for children ages 3-10
• Chugani (1999) link to topic

  Localisation of function:

  the brain activity of babies is shown, brainstem has most activity for basic reflexes -- no high order thinking in babies, thus low activity in cerebral cortex.

  Glucose metabolism: Higher rate = larger development
• Who conducted the study on anchoring effects in 1974?


  Tversky and Kahneman