intra and interspecific relationships

• mutualism is a relationship between two species in which both species benefit
• parasitism is a relationship between two species in which one benefits and the other is harmed
• commensalism is a relationship between two species where one benefits and the other is neither benefited nor harmed
• intraspecific bonding refers to the relationship between two individuals of the same species
• infraspecific bonding - family groups :

  groups of related individuals that often cooperate in raising young foraging and defending territory
• infraspecific bonding - social groups :

  larger groups of individuals that are not necessarily related, but who interact regularly.
• what are the benefits for animals in social groups?

  they provide increased protection, improved foraging efficiency and opportunities for social learning.
• infraspecific bonding - mating pairs :


  pairs of individuals who form a long term bond for the purpose of reproduction. they often cooperate in raising young and defending territory
• what are the types of interspecific bonding?

  mutualism, parisitism, commensalism
• what are some examples of intraspecific bonding?

  family groups, social groups, mating pairs
• what are some examples of intraspecific competition?

  food, water, shelter, mates, dominance, territory
• animals compete for food resources. this can lead to aggressive interactions other than more subtle behaviours like resource rationing
• in arid environments, waster is a limiting resource and individuals may compete for access to a water source
• aggressive interactions include fighting over access to food or feeding sites.
• resource rationing is when an individual avoids areas where it knows another has already fed.
• dominant animals have priority access to resources such as food, water, shelter, and breeding opportunities.
• competition for mates occurs when males fight over females during breeding season. In many species, only the strongest and most dominant males are able to mate successfully.
• animals may compete for suitable shelter sites such as dens, burrows or nesting cavities
• fighting for mates may lead to aggressive displays, fights or more elaborate courtship rituals
• individuals establish dominance hierarchies , where higher - ranking individuals have priority access to resources and mates. this can reduce direct aggression and promote social stability
• animals defend territory to secure resources and mating opportunities. territorial behaviour involves displays, vocalisations and physical aggression to deter intruders