Chapter 14 -Peacemaking 1919-23

• What is meant by the term "mandate"?

  Territories (particularly overseas colonies) transferred to the control of a different country until they were thought capable of governing themselves
• Who was Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929)?

  He entered politics when he saw France defeated and occupied by the Prussians. He was nicknamed "The Tiger" and had a reputation for toughness and harboured deep resentment and fear of Germany. He was the PM of France from 1917, but disliked President Poincare. He was defeated in the 1920 presidential elections and died in 1929 after predicting another war with Germany
• How did the Big Three ensure that their influence was felt over the conference?

  • protected own interests
  • After the delegations of the 32 represented countries, the Big Three discusses the eventual TOV terms which dealt with Germany and the LON
  • The subsequent treaties settling disputes in Eastern Europe and Turkey were shaped by a series of compromises
• When did the Paris Peace Conference begin?

  18th January 1919
• What happened in March 1919?

  • The negotiations had reached a stalemate and the conference appeared likely to collapse
  • Lloyd George issued the Fontainebleau Memorandum, setting out the extent of principles acceptable to the British
• What did Lloyd George achieve with the Fontainebleau Memorandum?

  • He persuaded Clemenceau to accept a more balanced treaty which would not leave Germany unable to recover economically, and convinced him to accept the League of Nations
  • With Clemenceau's agreement to these key principles secured, Lloyd George then persuaded Wilson to accept the "War Guilt" clause
• What were the unavoidable concerns around Europe's borders during the talks and how were these resolved?


  • The redrawing of Europe's borders would mean some people would now find themselves part of a country they did not want to live in
  • The peacemakers tried to ensure protection for minorities, such as freedom of religion and language
• Which of these countries withdrew from the talks though, and why?

  • Japan - predominantly about the fate of Europe
  • Italy - PM Vittorio Orlando temporarily withdrew after he could not secure territorial gains for the country
• Therefore, which countries were left the most victorious and influential in the negotiations?

  USA, France and Britain
• What was the extent of the wreckage of the war?

  • Psychological - millions dead
  • The casualty rate and destruction were deeply shocking and so allied statesmen were guided by the desire for revenge and a lasting peace from the public, who were proudly adamant that such loss should never again be tolerated
• Which country experienced the most casualties in WW1?

  Germany - 2 million dead and 4.2 wounded
• What did the democratic nature of each of the Big Three mean?

  • They had to reflect the attitudes of their electorates as well as their own personal views - if the general public did not feel their interests had been represented they were likely to vote their leaders out of office.
  • This was particularly significant in Britain, which had a General Election in December 1918 and France, who had a legislative election scheduled for late 1919
• What were the aims of Georges Clemenceau?

  • witnessed 2 German invasions and viewed GER as a dangerous power that needed to be crippled
  • strong FRA desire for revenge
  • FRA suffered the worst destruction and casualties, provoking revenge
  • sceptical of 14 Points - too idealistic
• Clemenceau was pragmatic and wanted Germany to be dismembered with the Rhineland made into a separate state to create a physical border between Germany and France. He was not convinced that Lloyd George and Wilson sympathised with the French fear of German invasion.
• Rather than a neutral location, Clemenceau insisted the conference be held in Paris as recognition of French sacrifices in the war
• Who was David Lloyd George (1863-1945)?

  British PM since Dec 1916 - known for his flexibility and integrity. A liberal and had manoeuvred politically to pass progressive legislation and his pragmatism at the conference meant he acted as a conciliator between the vengeful Clemenceau and idealist Wilson. Expressed disappointment with the ToV and became a critic of the appeasement of Hitler
• Which two powers were not invited to the conference?

  • Germany as the defeated side
  • Russia mistrusted and sidelined as a communist state
• What happened in 1919 in Paris?

  Delegations representing 32 of the nations of WW1 went to the Paris Peace Conference to negotiate several peace settlements
• Who were the talks initially to be led by?

  The Big Five - Britain, France, USA, Italy and Japan
• What were the aims of Lloyd George?

  • Like Clemenceau, LG was unenthusiastic about some of the 14 points - self-determination implied Britain would have to give up its empire
  • LG acted as a mediator between C and W at the conference - British and French leaders considered their aims to be more practical than Wilson's, but LG agreed with US President's aim of securing long term European peace
• What were the aims of Woodrow Wilson?

  • Establishment of League of Nations important to W - hoped would prevent future conflict by setting up negotiations and arbitration between countries in the event of disputes
  • Self-determination for smaller states formerly part of Habsburg, Russian and Ottoman Empires = principle guiding 
• Wilson hoped results of Peace Conference would convince voters the war had been worth fighting in - many Americans had favoured neutrality instead of involvement - treaties emerged had to be based on American ideals like freedom from foreign oppression - shaped 14 points Jan 1918
• One of the principles behind increasingly popular policy of isolationism in the US was that European wars were almost inevitable due to "old world" bitterness and rivalry - view particularly prevalent amongst Republican senators and congressmen - Wilson was a Democrat, so his political career was at stake - a settlement providing long term peace essential
• Where did divisions occur between the Big Three in the agreements?

  • Clemenceau demanded more security for France against Germany in the form of a barrier in the Rhineland and French control of Saar coalfields
  • This was rejected by Wilson and Lloyd George as it contradicted self-determination and Britain and the USA had the seas as a natural barrier against a resurgent Germany
  • Lloyd George predicted that by confiscating more German territory there would be a new revanchism and continued bitterness between Germany and France
• Who led the Arabian delegation?

  Prince Faisal and advised by Thomas Edward Lawrence (known to posterity as Lawrence of Arabia)
• What was the problem with self-determination for former empires?

  • It did not extend to these former empires
  • It was widely felt that countries like Cameroon and the Samoan Islands were not yet mature and civilised enough to rule themselves, so they would be governed by Europeans until they had "matured into nationhood"
• According to Wilson, mandates were unnecessary for Europeans when it came to the former Habsburg Empire
• How were the Arabian delegation involved in the Paris Peace Conference?

  • Arrived in Paris to claim Mesopotamia
  • However, Lloyd George blocked their proposals in favour of British control over the region
  • Britain's desire for Arabian oil and security around the Suez Canal was prioritised over the promises made to the Arabs in 1915
• What happened in May 1919?

  The peacemakers wrote to Berlin to request a German delegation to receive the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany was given no opportunity to change the terms and had to accept them
• Why were Italy disappointed with the Paris Peace Conference?

  • They were angry by vetoed proposals
  • Under the 1915 Treaty of London the Italians had been promised land around the Adriatic; Wilson now opposed the idea in the name of self determination
  • The response of the Italian delegation was to walk out of the conference
  • The blocking of territorial gains gave rise to increased Italian nationalism and expansionism
• How were Japan involved in the Paris Peace Conference?

  • Hoped their presence would secure their transition to a world power
  • Had been a successful wartime ally and now occupied Korea and Manchuria in China
  • Proposed a racial equality clause in the treaty which would end the ban on Asian immigration in force in the USA and Australia
  • At first this was blocked and the Japanese threatened to walk out whilst China implored the peacemakers not to compromise as Japan's occupation of Manchuria contravened self-determination
• • Wilson finally agreed to Japan's demand to prevent the conference collapsing, but the Chinese felt betrayed
• What were the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne?

  • Signed in Switzerland (a neutral country)
  • Returned all the territories given to Greece back to Turkey - a notable concession given the long term hostility between Greece and Turkey (war 1897 and 1912)
  • All foreign troops ordered to leave
  • Returned control of Straits back to Turkey, although they had to remain
  • Returned all the territories given to Greece back to Turkey - a notable concession given the long term hostility between Greece and Turkey (war 1897 and 1912)
• Give some context behind the Treaty of Lausanne

  • The Treaty of Sevres was deeply unpopular in Turkey
  • Popular discontent sparked an uprising led by the Turk nationalist leader Kemal Ataturk
  • The Sultan, tainted by his role in signing the Treaty of Sevres, was deposed and Ataturk's army drove Greek and British troops out of Turkey
  • Ataturk rejected the Sevres and the Allies agreed to renegotiate the settlement
• Which country did the Treaty of Lausanne deal with?

  Turkey
• When was the Treaty of Lausanne signed?

  24th July 1923
• What were the terms of the Treaty of Sevres?


  • Ideal of self-determination ignored - territories stripped from Turkey's control and many key strategic areas established as mandates and protectorates
  • Smyrna -> Greece
  • Iraq and Palestine -> British mandates
  • Lebanon and Syria -> French mandates
  • Morocco and Tunisia -> French protectorates
  • Hejaz -> independent kingdom
  • Turkish Straits -> LON
  • British, French, Italian and Greek troops occupied Turkey
  • Army limited to 50,700 men
• Give some context to the Treaty of Sevres

  • Treatment of Turkey in the treaty reflected their long term hostility of the Allies to the Turks
  • Lloyd George compared their "mismanagement" of the Ottoman Empire to a "human cancer"
  • The Armenian Massacre in 1915-16 further convinced the peacemakers of the Ottoman government's "evil"
• Which country did the Treaty of Sevres deal with?

  Turkey
• When was the Treaty of Sevres signed?

  August 1920