Chapter 15 - Challenges to the Peace Settlement

• Germans viewed the war guilt clause and exclusion from the LON as pride denting and resentful - they felt that Russia was equally, if not more responsible for starting the war. This was further exacerbated by the military restrictions, which left Germany vulnerable to invasion
• There were genuine concerns that the 6.5 million Germans who now lived under foreign rule would be persecuted by their new govs and right wingers felt they should be brought back under German jurisdiction
• Reparations was the most unpalatable element - claimed that the allies were deliberately trying to starve German mothers and children - the Weimar gov petitioned to renegotiate the amount and schedule of payment, and in 1921, upon Germany's refusal to pay, 3 cities were occupied by British and French troops - in November the government began making payments as the scale of reparations had been adjusted in German favour
• What is meant by the term "November Criminals"?

  • Extreme right-wing groups in Germany began propaganda campaigns in the aftermath of the armistice and TOV
  • Claimed that soldiers of WW1 had been betrayed by the gov
  • Politicians involved in signing the armistice were branded "November Criminals", a slogan adopted by Hitler in the 1920s
  • As Hitler's popularity grew, so did the slogan - it was among the factors that eroded the credibility of the Weimar Republic
• What was the public opinion about the TOV in Germany?

  • The treatment under the TOV was not the pure reason for Hitler's 1933 rise to power, but the German gov's acceptance of the terms created a toxic feeling of betrayal among many
  • The signing was an early and significant blow to the rep of the Weimar gov - the treaty was seen as a "diktat" as the leaders had no say in it
• • Returning troops felt that Germany had been making significant gains in autumn 1918 and so felt a sense of deep betrayal - as Germany had not been defeated and there had been no allied invasion, the treaty was seen as a "stab in the back"
• What was Germany's initial reaction to the TOV?

  • When the German delegation was shown the terms, Count Brockdorff-Rantzau made a defiant speech against it
  • When the Allies sent a final ultimatum to the Germans on 16th June, the gov resigned in protest and the Chancellor Scheidemann announced "May the hand wither that signs this treaty"
  • The ultimatum was a threat of renewal of conflict and immediate resumption of the naval blockade if the Treaty was not signed
• • A new German gov was formed with Gustav Bauer as Chancellor and a Reichstag vote was held on the peace settlement
  • 237 voted in favour, 138 voted against and 5 refused to vote
  • The FM (Muller) and Colonial Minister (Bell) were sent to sign the Treaty on behalf of Germany
• Who were the Council of Four?

  Comprised the Big three (Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George) and Orlando of Italy
• How did Lloyd George react to the TOV?

  • Lloyd George expressed concerns over the TOV even before the Germans signed in June 1919
  • German delegation's rebuttal to the terms won Lloyd George's admiration
  • He tried to convince Wilson and Clemenceau to reconsider key terms but they refused
  • However, he was greeted as a hero by the British public upon his return from France in summer 1919
• How did Britain react to the ToV?


  • Issue of reparations most criticised by Britain - Lloyd George's negotiation of Britain's share was complicated by the fact that he owed £1 billion to America
  • The British were convinced that the reparations on Germany would cause long-term economic misery for Germans who now had a democratic gov not responsible for causing the war
• A failed German economy would disadvantage Britain - it would have a negative impact on British trade and could cause a communist revolution
• How did France react to the ToV?

  Did not find satisfaction

  • Not immediately ratified - subject to 6 weeks of fierce debate in the Chamber of Deputies
  • Brought to the surface some of the sharpest divisions in French politics
• French Political Reactions

  • Socialists argued the Treaty was too harsh - Germany was now democratic and France should cooperate
  • Centre and right wing pointed out that it contained very few assurances against future German aggression
  • Germany was now surrounded by small, weak states and Clemenceau had failed to secure the Rhineland as a buffer state
• • General Foch (Supreme Allied Commander) - the treaty was "not peace but an armistice for 20 years"
  • Eventually ratified by the French but Clemenceau's popularity had greatly diminished - he was defeated in the 1920 presidential election
• What was the territorial fate of Germany as a result of the Treaty of Versailles?

  • Territorial and economic penalties were extensive
  • Germany lost 13% land, 6 mil Germans were made citizens of other nations and 15% German agricultural land and 10% industry was given to France
• Germany - ToV

  Germany's merchant fleet mostly went to Britain, lost colonial possessions, Alsace-Lorraine returned to France, the Rhineland was demilitarised and occupied and Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark
• Germany - ToV

  Germany was forbidden from political or economic union with Austria and Posen and West Prussia went to Poland, cutting East Prussia off from Germany
• What was the military fate of Germany as a result of the Treaty of Versailles?

  • The army was cut to 100,000 men, forbidden from tanks, warplanes and heavy artillery, the navy cut to 15,000 personnel, only allowed 6 battleships and no subs
  • Germany indefinitely excluded from LON
• What was the final Treaty of Versailles like?

  • After 6 months of negotiations, delegates to Paris reached awkward compromises fashioned into a Treaty
  • Formally signed in Hall of Mirrors at Palace of Versailles 28th June 1919
• Delegate's Reactions

  • Few delegates were fully happy, with Germany being the most unhappy, whose delegates had been excluded until May 1919, after which attendance was a formality so they could be lectured about what had been declared on their behalf
• Article 231

  • Article 231 was of greatest concern to Berlin - "war guilt clause" - Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war - drafted by
  • American legal experts who said Germany could only be held liable for reparations if they admitted starting the war
• When did Germany join the League of Nations?

  September 1926
• When did Hungary join the League of Nations?

  September 1922
• When did Austria and Bulgaria join the League of Nations?

  December 1920
• LoN - doubts

  • Even the leaders of the League doubted its success now that the USA was not a member
• LoN - Bias

  • Leadership was left to Britain and France, giving it "European bias" (Zara Steiner), and since the USSR and Germany were not allowed to join, the impression was given that the League was a "victors' club" which was more likely to defend their own interests than promote international peace - peacekeeping became "Eurocentric", damaging its credibility when dealing with crises
• LoN - FRA + BRI

  • The French and British were not optimistic - Lloyd George called it a "lame duck", believing it to be useless and counterproductive without America
• LoN - Preoccupied

  • The British just wanted to rebuild their trade and protect their empire and France was preoccupied with fears of the Germans and never really trusted Britain
• LoN - Lack of USA

  • Without the USA they lacked authority, political influence and economic power
  • The League's biggest sanction was trade boycotts, but as America was the greatest exporter, this punishment was practically useless as they could still trade
• What did the British diplomat Lord Robert Cecil call the LON?

  "a great experiment"
• What method of international relations had the LON hoped to foster?

  Internationalism - a very different approach to how foreign affairs had been conducted previously and to how crises and disputes had been resolved before 1914
• How did Harding create economic isolation?

  • Tariffs were introduced/increased to drive up the cost of foreign imports in order to protect domestic markets
  • The USA's trading partners responded with "retaliatory tariffs" which in turn made American imports to their countries more expensive
  • The result was a decline in global trade, which made international cooperation less important to countries' economies
• What did Harding's government extend the policy of isolationism to?

  • Immigration (banned Asian immigration and introduced quotas to limit the number of southern and eastern European immigrants)
  • The economy
• Who was Wilson succeeded by?

  The Republican Warren Harding
• Where did the idea of "no entangling alliances" come from?

  President Thomas Jefferson's inaugural speech in 1801 - promised "honest friendship with all nations - entangling alliances with none"
• What is meant by the term "ratify"?


  To give the final recognition to a treaty following its signature by the parties involved
• How did Wilson's popularity and power decline further after the TOV?


  • Though there was bitter discontent with the treaty, Wilson went on a speaking tour of the US in autumn 1919 to vigorously defend the settlement
  • Already overworked in Europe, this proved too much for his health and he suffered a stroke in September 1919, further diminishing his capacity to lead the country
  • After initially proposing to attach their own conditions to the TOV, in March 1920 the Senate refused to ratify it and refused to allow the USA to become a member of the LON
• • LON reliant on US support but Wilson found American attitudes towards it to be mixed in 1919
• In the USA - Lukewarm consensus that a multinational body was necessary, more for peace and stability of Europe than any other reason, but strong opposition to some aspects of covenant