research methods

• Case Study


  A research method in which a single case or a small number of cases are studied in-depth to gain a detailed understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Hypothesis


  A tentative explanation for a set of phenomena or a predicted outcome of a research study. A specific, testable, and falsifiable statement that can be used to guide research.
• Null Hypothesis (H0)


  A hypothesis that states that there is no significant relationship or difference between variables. Often tested against an alternative hypothesis (H1) to determine if the null hypothesis can be rejected.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1)


  A hypothesis that states that there is a significant relationship or difference between variables. Tested against the null hypothesis (H0) to determine if the null hypothesis can be rejected.
• Independent Variable (IV)


  A variable that is intentionally changed or manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
• Dependent Variable (DV)


  A variable that is measured or observed in response to changes or variations in the independent variable.
• Experimental Design


  A procedure for creating and implementing an experiment to test a hypothesis, typically involving the manipulation of an independent variable and the measurement of its effect on a dependent variable.
• Extraneous Variable


  A variable that can affect the outcome of an experiment, but is not being manipulated or controlled by the researcher.
• Independent Measures


  A research method where different groups of participants are used to compare the effects of different variables, with each group having its own unique set of participants.
• Dependent Measures


  A research method where the same group of participants is used to compare the effects of different variables, with the same participants exposed to different conditions or levels of the independent variable.
• Advantages of Dependent Measures


  Increased power, better controls, reduced sample size, and more precise estimates.
• Limitations of Dependent Measures


  Practice effects, fatigue, order effects, carryover effects, complexity, and participant demoralization.
• Advantages of Independent Measures


  Less participant burden, less complexity, fewer practice effects, fewer order effects, improved generalizability, and easier participant recruitment.
• Limitations of Independent Measures


  Between-subjects variability, fewer data points, increased sample size, less precise estimates, difficulty in controlling for confounds, and limited ecological validity.
• Target Population


  The specific group of individuals or entities that a researcher aims to generalize their findings to, defined by demographic characteristics, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and other criteria.
• Sample


  A group of individuals or entities selected from a larger population to represent that population in a study, with the goal of making inferences about the larger population.
• Sampling Method


  A systematic approach to identifying and recruiting participants for a study, ensuring that the sample represents the population of interest.
• Biases

  Common biases that can occur in research, including selection bias, sampling bias, information bias, measurement bias, observer bias, Hawthorne effect, social desirability bias, recall bias, interviewer bias, and non-response bias.
• Simple Random Sampling (SRS)


  A method of selecting a random sample where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
• Opportunity Sampling


  A non-probabilistic sampling method where the researcher selects participants based on convenience or availability.
• Self-Selected Sampling


  A non-probabilistic sampling method where participants select themselves to participate in a study or survey.
• Ethics in Research

  Importance of ethics in research: to ensure participant well-being, respect, and fairness. Principles: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. Key considerations: informed consent, anonymity and confidentiality, risk and harm minimization, debriefing. Ethical codes: Nuremberg Code, Helsinki Declaration, Code of Ethical Conduct.
• Ethical Guidelines for Research

  TREND (Tri-Council Policy Statement): core principles (respect, beneficence, justice, accountability), key considerations (informed consent, anonymity and confidentiality, risks and benefits, debriefing), ethical review process (REB, IRB). International ethical guidelines: Nuremberg Code, Helsinki Declaration, Declaration of Helsinki.
• British Psychological Society (BPS)


  Mission: promote advancement of psychology as a science and profession, promote well-being of individuals and society. Code of Ethics: respect for people, competence, confidentiality, informed consent. Ethical guidelines: research ethics, clinical ethics, teaching and learning.
• Informed Consent


  Informed consent requires that participants be able to make a free and informed decision to participate in research, with full disclosure of the research's risks and benefits.
• Deception

  Deception is the use of false or misleading information to manipulate participants' behavior or attitudes, and must be justified and minimized.
• Harm and Risk

  Researchers must take steps to minimize the risk of physical, emotional, and psychological harm to participants, ensuring that any risks are justified and minimal.
• Debriefing

  Debriefing requires that researchers provide participants with a thorough explanation of the research, including any deception or manipulation, to ensure they are fully informed.
• Transparency


  Being transparent about your methods, procedures, and findings can help to build trust and credibility, and ensure that your work is seen as ethical and trustworthy.
• Confidentiality


  Maintaining confidentiality and respecting the privacy of participants, colleagues, and clients can help to address ethical issues related to confidentiality and privacy.
• Right to Withdraw


  The participant's right to withdraw from a research study or experiment at any time, without penalty or coercion, is essential for ensuring informed consent and participant autonomy.
• Experiment


  A controlled scientific investigation that manipulates one or more variables to measure their effect on a specific outcome or variable.
• Field Experiment

  A type of experiment that is conducted in a natural or real-world setting, manipulating variables and measuring outcomes to understand the effect on a specific phenomenon or population.
• Ecological Validity

  The degree to which an experiment accurately represents real-world situations and behaviors.
• Natural Experiment

  A type of observational study that takes advantage of a naturally occurring event or situation to test a hypothesis or investigate a research question.
• Laboratory Experiment


  A type of scientific experiment that is conducted in a controlled laboratory setting, where variables can be manipulated and measured in a precise and systematic way.
• Structured Interview


  An interview where the researcher asks a predetermined set of questions, often with a standardized format and timing.
• Interview


  A structured conversation between a researcher and a participant, where the researcher asks pre-specified questions to gather information, opinions, and experiences.
• Unstructured Interview


  A type of qualitative research interview where the researcher asks open-ended questions and does not follow a predetermined set of questions or topics.
• Open-Ended Questions


  Questions that encourage participants to share their thoughts and experiences in detail, often starting with what, how, or why.