Gender

• Gender bias results when one gender is treated less favourably than the other.
• There are three main types of gender bias; alpha, beta and androcentrism.
• Gender bias can affect the validity of psychological findings by skewing the results and limiting the generalisability of the findings to both men and women.
• Some strategies to reduce gender bias in psychological research include using diverse samples that include both men and women, using gender-inclusive language in research materials, and considering gender as a variable in data analysis.
• Alpha bias refers to the exaggeration of differences between genders, often leading to the promotion of stereotypes and the belief in inherent superiority or inferiority of one gender over the other.
• Androcentrism refers to the belief or practice that places men or masculinity as the central or superior focus, often resulting in gender bias against women.
• Beta bias refers to the tendency to downplay or ignore differences between genders, assuming that what applies to one gender applies equally to the other. It can contribute to gender bias by overlooking the unique experiences and needs of different genders.
• Gender bias can limit the generalisability of research findings by excluding or underrepresenting certain genders, leading to findings that may not apply to the entire population.
• Gender bias can impact the validity of psychological findings by skewing the results and limiting the generalisability of the findings to both men and women.
• Gender bias can impact the reliability of psychological findings by skewing the results and limiting the generalisability of the findings to both men and women.
• Gender bias can affect the interpretation of research results by leading to skewed conclusions, as it may overlook or downplay the experiences and perspectives of certain genders, resulting in a limited understanding of the topic being studied.
• Alpha bias occurs when the differences between men and women are exaggerated. Therefore, stereotypical male and female characteristics may be emphasised.
• Beta bias occurs when the differences between men and women are minimised. This often happens when findings obtained from men are applied to women without additional validation.
• Androcentric bias is taking findings from men and applying them to women.
• Beta bias has made people see men and women as the same, which has led to equal treatment in legal terms and equal access to, for example, education and employment.
• Alpha bias has led to healthy criticism of cultural values that praise certain male qualities such as aggression as being desirable.
• Alpha bias can sustain prejudices and stereotypes.
• Beta bias draws attention away from the differences in power between men and women.
• Kitzinger (1998) argued that questions about sex differences are very political, and suggested gender differences are often distorted to maintain the status quo of male power.
• Kohlberg (1958) based his stages of moral development around male moral reasoning and had an all-male sample. He then inappropriately generalised his findings to women (beta bias).
• Gilligan (1988) highlighted the gender bias inherent in Kohlberg’s work and suggested women make moral decisions in a different way to men.
• Freud’s ideas are seen as inherently gender biased, as he explained gender development in terms of the psychosexual stages and focused more on male development through the Oedipus complex.
• Freud’s theories are androcentric and much of his supporting research comes from case studies like Little Hans.
• Men and women might respond differently to research situations, so research should not always assume standardised procedures.
• Universality believes that underlying characteristics apply to everyone, regardless of experience and upbringing.
• Sometimes differences heighten the value of women, but more often they put women lower than men in society.
• Alpha bias can favour women in come cases, like in the psychodynamic approach. Chodorow (1968) suggested that daughters have greater connections with their mothers because of their similarities, compared to mothers and sons.
• Research into attachment has misrepresented men, as psychologists like Bowlby suggest women are usually the primary caregiver.
• Brescoll & Uhlmann (2008) suggest men’s anger is a seen as a rational response to external pressure, whereas women’s anger is deemed hormonal.
• One limitation of gender bias is that gender differences are often viewed a fixed, when they are not.
• Maccoby & Jacklin (1974) presented the findings of several gender studies which concluded that girls have superior verbal ability whereas boys have superior spatial awareness. They claimed these skills were innate and were reported as facts.
• Joel et al (2015) found no sex differences in the brain structure or processing of males and females, criticising Maccoby & Jacklin (1974).
• Ingalhalikar et al (2014) suggested that psychologists should not avoid studying gender differences in the brain.
• Ingalhalikar et al (2014) argues that the popular social stereotype that women are better at multitasking may have some truth. There is some evidence that women have better connections between the left and right hemisphere.
• Another limitation of gender bias is that it can promote sexism.
• Gender bias can lead to implications when interpreting the findings and conclusions from psychological research; this could create or reinforce prejudice and stereotypes in society.
• Formanowicz et al (2008) analysed more than 1000 articles for gender bias and found that the research is less likely to be funded and is often published in less prestigious journal articles.