Research Methods

• Aim, variables and hypotheses


  Aim

  IV

  DV

  operationalising variables

  Null and alternative hypotheses

  directional v non-directional
• Aim


  A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate
• Independent Variable (IV)


  The variable that's manipulated or naturally changes
• Dependent Variable (DV)


  The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV
• Operationalising Variables


  Involves defining variables (how they are measured)

  To ensure variables are in a form that can be easily tested
• Hypothesis


  Precise and testable prediction made at the start of a study. Researcher makes a null and alternative hypothesis here.
• Null Hypothesis


  No significant difference between variables, or no correlation between co-variables
• Alternative Hypothesis


  Significant difference between variables or no correlation between co-variables

  (Researcher reviews existing literature and this guides their way of how an alternative hypothesis is written, directional or non-directional)
• Directional hypothesis


  States the direction of the difference or relationship used when there's previous research to base the expected result upon. This allows people to predict the outcome.
• Non-directional hypothesis


  Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship

  used when there is no previous research
• Problems in psychological. research

  Extraneous variables

  situational variables

  confounding variables

  situational and participant variables

  demand characteristics

  investigator effects

  order effects
• Extraneous variables


  Any variable apart from IV which may affect DV if not controlled.

  
  

  Situational variables affecting both conditions in study

  
  

  Important to control for as they make it harder to detect if the IV affects DV.
• Confounding variables


  Variable varies systematically with the IV

  
  

  Situational or participant variables affecting one condition in study

  
  

  Problematic as we can't tell if any change in DV is due to IV or confounding variable
• Demand characteristics


  Any cue from the researcher or research situation that can be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation leading them to changing their behaviour.
• Investigator effects


  Any unintentional influence of researcher's behaviour
• Order effects


  Refers to how the positioning of tasks influences outcome

  (e.g. practice effect or boredom on second task)
• Types of research methods

  Experiments

  observations

  self-report methods

  content analysis

  correlation

  case study
• Experimental method/ types of experiments


  All experiments involve a change in an IV, with the researcher measuring the subsequent effects on the DV.

  
  

  How IV changes, and under what circumstances varies from one type of experiment to another.
• Observation


  Non-experimental method, records participant's behaviour.

  Can be used to measure Dv in experiments too.

  
  

  Types: Controlled, naturalistic, overt, covert, participant,

  non-participant
• Self-report techniques


  A non-experimental technique or method used to find out about peoples behaviours, thoughts and feelings.

  Can be used to measure DV in experiment too.

  
  

  Types: questionnaires (open/closed questions)

  interviews (structures/unstructured)
• Correlation


  A measure of the relationship between two variables.

  
  

  The movement and direction of co-variables in response to each other is measured.

  
  

  Techniques: self report-method
• Content analysis


  Indirect observation that examines forms of medias that people produce/communications.

  
  

  Non-experimental method.

  Used to quantify qualitative content via coding too.

  
  

  Techniques: Thematic analysis and coding
• Case studies


  Studies that involve extensive, in-depth interviews with single individuals, groups or institutions.

  
  

  Techniques: Questionnaires, interviews OR experimental/

  psychological testing (asses capabilities)
• Types and evaluation of experiments


  Experiment types:

  Laboratory, field, natural, quasi

  
  

  Common themes of evaluation:

  Internal validity : high/low

  Ecological validity: high/low

  Reduced ethical issues: yes/no

  Risk of demand characteristics: Yes/no
• Laboratory experiment


  Controlled environment, IV manipulated, DV effects recorded

  
  

  ✅ High internal validity (control over extraneous variables)

  ✅ Reduced ethical issues (consent given)

  
  

  ❌ Low ecological validity (artificial environments)

  ❌ Increased risk of demand characteristics
• Field experiment


  Natural setting, IV manipulated, DV effects recorded

  
  

  ✅High ecological validity (natural setting)

  ✅Lower risk of demand characteristics (Unawarely studied)

  
  

  ❌ Low internal validity (loss of control over extraneous)

  ❌Ethical issues (unawarely studied so hard to seek consent)
• Quasi experiment


  A comparison that relies on already-existing groups (i.e., groups the experimenter did not create).

  Controlled or natural setting, DV effects recorded.

  
  

  ✅Reduced demand characteristics (participation in one

  condition only)

  ✅Comparisons are easier to make (insight to sims+diffs)

  
  

  ❌Reduced internal validity (can't randomly allocate

  conditions)
• Natural experiment


  Controlled or natural setting, IV naturally occurs, DV effects recorded.

  
  

  ✅High ecological validity (real-life issues studied)

  ✅Opportunities for research

  
  

  ❌Reduced internal validity (can't randomly allocate

  conditions)

  ❌Hard to generalise (results rarely occur)
• Internal validity


  the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable
• Ecological validity


  The extent to which the results can be generalised to other settings/real-life
• Ethical issues


  The extent to which the rights of participants are being met (morally right/wrong)
• Experimental design and evaluation


  The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to experimental conditions (IV)

  
  

  Repeated measures

  independent groups

  matched pairs
• Repeated measures


  Both conditions are experienced (of IV)

  
  

  ✅More economical (2 results per person so bigger sample)

  ✅Participant variables controlled

  
  

  ❌Order effects (perform worse 2nd condition as boredom)

  ❌Demand characteristics (both conditions experienced so

  aim can be figured out)
• Independent groups


  Two separate groups, experience two different conditions of the experiment

  
  

  ✅No order effects (1 condition)

  ✅Less demand characteristics (less likely to figure out aim)

  
  

  ❌Participant variables (2 different groups used to compare)

  ❌Less economical (x2 participants needed as repeated measures)
• Matched pairs


  1) All participants assessed about key variable,

  2) Participants with two highest scores are paired,

  3) One participant from each pair is randomly allocated

  condition A and the other condition B.

  
  

  ✅Reduced participant variables (matched on similarities)

  ✅Less demand characteristics+order effects (1 condition)

  
  

  ❌Uncontrolled other participant variables (1 key variable)

  ❌Less economical (x2 participants needed as repeated measures)
• Types of observation and evaluation


  Types of observation: setting:

  Controlled observation or naturalistic observation

  
  

  Types of observation: observer's involvement:

  Participant observation or non-participant observation

  
  

  Setting:

  Internal validity: high/low

  Ecological validity: high/low

  
  

  Observers' status:

  ethical: more/less

  demand characteristics: yes/no

  
  

  Observer's involvement:

  investigator effects: yes/no

  valuable insight gained into behaviour: yes/no
• Controlled observation


  Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment

  
  

  ✅High internal validity (controlled extraneous variables so

  conclusions are genuine)

  
  

  ❌Low ecological validity (artificial environment)
• Naturalistic observation


  Watching and recording behaviour in a setting where it would normally occur

  
  

  ✅High ecological validity (apply conclusions to real-life)

  
  

  ❌Demand characteristics (awareness of being studied)
• Overt observation


  Participants are aware they're being observed, consent given, researcher is clearly visible

  
  

  ✅More ethical (participants have consented, can withdraw)

  
  

  ❌Demand characteristics (aware of being studied)
• Covert observation


  Participants are unaware they're being observed, no given consent, often via hidden cameras/two-way mirrors

  
  

  ✅Less demand characteristics (unaware of being observed)

  
  

  ❌Ethical issues (unaware of observation, no consent, deceit)