Extra help unit 3

• The sequence of structure after exhaling > steps it comes out of your mouth 


  alveoli in the lungs > bronchioles > bronchi > trachea > larynx > pharynx > and then out the mouth
• Carbon transported in blood


  CO2 is transported in three main ways:

  Dissolved in plasma (about 7-10%)

  Bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin (20-30%)

  As bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in plasma ( about 60-70%)
• What does the blood show during hyperventilation

  Hyperventilation lowers CO2 levels, causing blood pH to rise (respiratory alkalosis)
• Exchange of gases between alveoli and lung capillary 


  This occurs via diffusion:

  oxygen moves from alveoli (high concentration) to blood, while CO2 moves from blood (high concentration) to alveoli
• Effect if intercostal muscles and diaphragm don‘t work

  Breathing would be compromised because these muscles are essential for expanding and contracting the thoracic cavity
• Pressure requirements to exhale 


  Internal pressure must be greater than the atmospheric pressure for exhalation to occur
• where is higher concentration of CO2 found 


  higher concentration of CO2 is found in venous blood compared to arterial blood
• Factors causing hemoglobin to release oxygen better 


  Increased CO2, increased temperature, and decreased pH (Bohr effect) enhance oxygen release from hemoglobin
• Urine of a type 1 diabetes patient 


  Urine may contain glucose and ketones
• Nephron structure identification 


  common parts to identify are the glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, proximal/distal tubules, loop of Henle, and collecting duct
• ADH hormone function 


  ADH (antidiuretic hormone) regulates water balance by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys
• Regulation of water content 


  ADH and aldosterone regulate water reabsorption in the kidneys
• Ammonia conversion 


  Ammonia is converted to urea in the liver for safer excretion
• How blood enters the kidneys

  Blood enters via the renal artery, which branches from the aorta
• Bladder at 200ml


  Stretch receptors send signal to brain to empty bladder
• Bladder 400ml 


  The signal is sent again with more urgency
• Bladder at 600ml


  You lose voluntary control of sphincter + bladder empties
• ADH hormone 


  Functions to conserve water by promoting reabsorbtion in the kidney’s collecting ducts
• Sliding filament model and myosin heads 


  Myosin heads bind to actin filaments, pulling them for muscle contractions
• What prevents myosin binding 


  Troponin and tropomyosin from being to actin in the absence of Ca2+
• Energy source for muscle contractions 


  ATP is the primary energy source
• Antagonistic muscles 


  Pairs like the biceps and triceps; when one contracts, the other relaxes
• Calcium ions (Ca2+) 


  Ca2+ is crucial for muscle contraction as it binds to troponin, enabling myosin-actin interaction
• Fast twitch muscle fibers 


  Light colour

  Suited for quick, powerful movements
• Slow twitch muscle fibers 


  darker colour

  suited for endurance
• Intestinal villi function 


  Villi increase surface area for nutrient absorption in the small intestine
• Lymphatic system functions 


  Includes fluid balance, fat absorption, and immune defence
• Difference in male vs female urethra 


  The male urethra is longer and part of both urinary and reproductive systems

  The female urethra is shorter and only part of the urinary system
• Renal artery and vein functions 


  The renal artery supplies oxygenated blood to the kidneys, while the renal vein carries deoxygenated blood away
• Urine formation steps in nephrons 


  Includes filtration (glomerulus), reabsorption (proximal tubule), secretion (loop of henle), H2O reabaorbtion (distal tubule) and excretion (collecting duct)
• Order of structures (urinary)

  Glomerulus > bowman’s capsule > proximal tubule > distal tubule > loop of Henle > distal tubule
• Urinary system differences in males and females


  males have a longer urethra, females have a shorter one
• Substances not found in glomerular filtrate 


  large molecules like proteins and blood cells shouldn’t be present
• Kidney image: urine collections and passage 


  Urine collects int the renal pelvis and exits through the ureter
• Components reabsorbed from filtrate 


  Glucose and amino acids are typically reabsorbed
• Homeostatic response to dehydration

  ADH increases water absorption, and aldosterone sodium (and hence water) reabsorbtion
• ADH and diabetes insipidus 


  Diabetes insipidus results from lack of ADH, leading to excession water loss
• Path of red blood cells from left ventricle to right atrium 


  Red blood cells travel through the systematic circulation, including arteries, capillaries, and veins
• Blood percentage and circulation insight 


  Indicates distribution and regulation of blood flow among organs
• Peristalsis in digestion 


  rhythmic contractions of smooth muscles propel food along the digestive tract