approaches

• Origins of Psychology


  Wundt founded first ever psychological lab in Germany in 1879.

  
  

  Aimed to document and describe the nature of human consciousness.

  
  

  Developed introspection

  
• Introspection

  Involved recording own conscious thoughts.

  
  

  Aim was to break these thoughts down into their constituent parts.

  
  

  Isolating the structure of consciousness in this way is known as Structuralism

  
• Origins of psychology - Evaluation


  -Wundt's methods were unreliable:

  - non observable responses

  - hard to reproduce

  
  

  -Introspection is inaccurate

  
  

  +Scientific approach

  - Brought objective systematic methods

  
  

  -Lab studies produce low ecological results
• Assumption of the behaviourist approach


  Blank slate

  
  

  All behavior is learnt other than survival instincts

  
  

  Animals can be used in research

  
  

  No difference between man and brute

  
  

  Rejection of introspection

  
  

  Reliant upon lab experiments to maintain control and objectivity

  
  

  2 forms of learning: classical and operant conditioning.

  
• Classical conditioning


  Learning through association

  
  

  Pavlov research - dogs associate sound of bell with food if bell is rung consistently before feeding.

  
• Classical conditioning procedure


  Before conditioning:

  Unconditioned stimulus (Food) = unconditioned response (Salivation).

  Neutral stimulus (Bell) = no conditioned response (No salivation).

  
  

  
  

  During conditioning:

  Neutral stimulus (Bell) + Unconditioned stimulus (Food) = Unconditioned response (Salivation).

  
  

  
  

  After Conditioning:

  Conditioned stimulus (Bell) = Conditioned Response (Salivation)
• Operant conditioning


  Learning through consequences

  
  

  Skinner (1953) suggested that learning is an active process where humans and animals operate in their environment.

  
  

  There are 3 types of consequences of behaviour: Positive reinforcement, Negative reinforcement, punishment.

  
• Positive reinforcement


  Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed.

  
  

  Example - Praise from a teacher for answering a question.

  
• Negative reinforcement


  Performance of a behaviour to avoid something unpleasant.

  
  

  Example - Handing in homework to avoid being told off.

  
• Behaviourist Approach - Evaluation

  +Influential in giving psychology greater credibility and status as a result of its largely lab based research.

  
  

  +Real life application - Token economy systems

  
  

  -Mechanistic view of behaviour - humans seen as passive machine like responders with no conscious insight into own behaviour.
• Assumptions of social learning theory


  People learn throughobservation and imitationof others within a social context.

  
  

  Behaviour is learned

  
  

  Learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning but also through indirect means (observation)
• SLT - Vicarious reinforcement


  Indirect reinforcement

  
  

  Learner observes a behaviour

  
  

  Imitation occurs if the learner sees the behaviour being reinforced rather than punished

  
  

  The learner observes the consequences of a behaviour
• SLT - Mediational processes


  Cognitive factors involved in learning

  
  

  Attention- Extent to which we notice certain behaviour

  
  

  Retention- How well the behaviour is remembered

  
  

  Motor Reproduction- The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour

  
  

  Motivation- The will to perform the behaviour
• SLT - Identification


  People (especially children) are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people they identify with.

  
  

  These are called role models

  
  

  A person becomes a role model if they are seen to have similar characteristics to the observer and if they have high status.

  
• Social Learning Theory - Research


  Bandura (1965)

  
  

  Children were most likely to perform aggressive behaviour when they observed an adult act aggressively and be rewarded.

  
• Social Learning Theory - Evaluation


  +Provides comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising role of mediational processes.

  
  

  -Over reliant on evidence from lab studies

  
  

  -Underestimates influence of biological factors such as testosterone on aggression.
• Assumptions of Cognitive approach


  Internal mental processes should be studied scientifically

  
  

  Studies area of human behaviour neglected by behaviourists

  
  

  These include memory, perception and thought

  
  

  These are studied indirectly by making inferences based on a person's behaviour.
• Cognitive approach - Models


  Theoretical models used to study internal processes.

  
  

  Computer model - Input -> Process -> Output

  
  

  Information processing approach suggests information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that includes input, storage and retrieval, as in the MSM
• Cognitive Approach - Schema


  Packages of ideas and information associated with a certain object/idea developed through experience.

  
  

  Helps us respond to the object in question appropriately

  
  

  Schema are flexible and differ from person to person

  
  

  Can lead to stereotyping of certain groups (Jews)
• Cognitive neuroscience


  Scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.

  
  

  In the 1860s Broca identified that damage to a certain area of the brain permanently impaired speech.

  
  

  In last 20 years, technology has advanced to allow brain imaging scans.

  
  

  Scientists are able to systematically observe neurological bases of mental processes
• Cognitive Approach - Evaluation


  +Scientific and objective methods - Highly controlled in a lab setting. Reliable and objective data produced.

  
  

  -Machine reductionism - ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system.

  
  

  -Application to everyday life - Can be too theoretical and abstract therefore can lack external validity.

  
  

  -Schema can lead to prejudice

  
  

  +Computer models help in advancement of AI
• Assumptions of Biological Approach


  Everything psychological is at first biological

  
  

  To fully understand behaviour, biological structures within the body must be examined

  
  

  These structures include: genes, nervous system and neurochemistry.

  
  

  An understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour
• Genetic basis of behaviour

  Studying whether behavioural characteristics are inherited
• Twins and concordance rates


  MZ twins - Identical twins with 100% same DNA

  
  

  DZ twins - Non identical with 50% same DNA

  
  

  Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis

  
  

  Done by comparing concordance rates

  
  

  If concordance rates are significantly higher for MZ twins than DZ twins, this is evidence that there is a genetic basis of behaviour
• Genotype


  The person's actual genetic makeup
• Phenotype


  The way that a person's genotype is expressed through environmental factors

  
  

  Identical twins may look different despite sharing same genotype
• Evolution and behaviour


  Genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual's ability to survive and reproduce will be passed on to the next generation.

  
• Nervous system


  Carries messages around the body using neurons which transmit nerve impulses in the form of electrical signals

  
• The Brain


  The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain

  
  

  The outer surface of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex

  
  

  The cerebral cortex is responsible for functions such as language thought

  
  

  The cerebrum is divided into 2 hemispheres which are then divided into 4 lobes

  
  

  The frontal lobe is used for emotion

  
• Neurotransmitter


  A chemical released when a nerve impulse reaches a synapse

  
  

  The neurotransmitter defuses across the synapse

  
  

  Excitatory or inhibitory

  
• Excitatory neurotransmitter


  Triggers nerve impulses in the receiving neuron and stimulates the brain into action

  
  

  Example - Dopamine associated with motivation
• Inhibitory Neurotransmitter


  Inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain and balance mood

  
  

  Example - Serotonin stabilises mood
• Hormones

  Chemicals secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands in response to a signal from the brain.

  
  

  Travel to their target cells and exert their influence by stimulating cell receptors

  
  

  The presence of a hormone causes a physiological reaction in the cell altering the cell's activity

  
• Biological approach - Evaluation


  +Based on reliable data - uses precise highly scientific methods not open to bias

  
  

  +Real life application - Drug therapy

  
  

  -Evolutionary explanation - Culture impacts behaviour, society moves faster than evolution, irrelevant in modern world
• Assumptions of Psychodynamic approach


  Behaviour determined more by psychological than biological factors.

  
  

  Behaviour largely controlled by unconscious part of the mind
• The role of the unconscious


  Most of the mind is made up of the unconscious (80%)

  
  

  A vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that influence behaviour and personality
• Structure of Personality


  3 Components:

  
  

  id

  
  

  ego

  
  

  superego

  
• The id


  Primitive part of the personality.

  
  

  Operates on pleasure principle

  
  

  Seething mass of unconscious drives and instincts

  
  

  Selfish, demands instant gratification of its needs

  
  

  Present at birth

  
• The ego


  Works on the reality principle

  
  

  Mediates between the id and superego

  
  

  Develops around the age of 2

  
  

  Reduces conflict between id and superego

  
  

  Employs a number of defence mechanisms

  
• The superego


  Based on the morality principle

  
  

  Our internalised sense of right and wrong

  
  

  Develops at end of phallic stage (around 5 years old)

  
  

  Represents the moral standards of the same sex parent