week 14

• How does the endocrine system differ from the nervous system in controlling body functions?


  The endocrine system uses hormones that travel via the bloodstream for longer-lasting effects, while the nervous system sends fast-acting electrical signals.
• What are the main functions of the endocrine system?


  The endocrine system controls growth, reproduction, homeostasis, and metabolism.
• What are the major endocrine glands?


  The pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pineal, pancreas, gonads, and hypothalamus.
• How are hormones classified?

  Hormones are either amino acid-based (water-soluble), steroid (lipid-soluble), or eicosanoids (local effects).
• What regulates hormone levels in the body?


  Hormone levels are controlled by negative feedback, where secretion stops once the desired effect is achieved.
• What are the main triggers for hormone release?


  Glands respond to humoral (blood level changes), hormonal (from other glands), or neural (nervous system) triggers.
• What is the role of the pituitary gland?


  The pituitary gland, divided into anterior and posterior sections, releases hormones such as growth hormone and oxytocin.
• Which gland regulates metabolism and development?


  The thyroid gland produces hormones (T3, T4) to regulate metabolism, body temperature, and development.
• What is the adrenal gland’s role in stress response?


  The adrenal cortex produces corticosteroids, and the medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine for stress response.
• Which hormone is involved in regulating sleep cycles?

  Melatonin, produced by the pineal gland, regulates sleep cycles.
• How does the pancreas control blood glucose?

  α-cells release glucagon to raise blood glucose, while β-cells release insulin to lower it.
• Name some common endocrine diseases.


  Diabetes mellitus (Type 1 and 2), hypothyroidism, and hyperthyroidism.
• How do exocrine glands differ from endocrine glands?

  Exocrine glands secrete directly to surfaces (e.g., sweat, saliva), while endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream.
• How are carbohydrates and proteins absorbed in the digestive system?


  They are absorbed via villi into the bloodstream and reach the liver through diffusion.
• How are fats absorbed differently from carbohydrates and proteins?


  Fats are recombined into triglycerides, enter the lymphatic system, and partially enter the bloodstream with help from lipases.
• List the four layers of the alimentary canal.

  Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.
• What happens in the stomach during digestion?


  The stomach stores food, begins protein digestion with pepsin and HCl, and converts food to chyme.
• What is the primary function of the small intestine?


  The small intestine is responsible for nutrient and water absorption.
• Which organs are considered accessory digestive organs?


  Liver, gall bladder, and pancreas.
• 1. What is the role of bile in digestion?


  Bile, produced by the liver, emulsifies fat to aid digestion.
• Describe peristalsis in the digestive system.


  Peristalsis is a wave-like muscle contraction that propels food through the digestive tract.
• Name some common digestive disorders.

  GERD, ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and appendicitis
• What are the primary components of the excretory system?

  Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
• What is the main function of the kidneys?


  The kidneys form urine and regulate water volume, electrolyte balance, pH, RBC production, and blood pressure.
• What are the normal components of urine?


  95% water, pH around 6, includes urea, uric acid, creatinine, Na+, K+, phosphates, sulfates, Ca2+, Mg2+, and HCO3-.
• What indicates abnormal health in urine?

  Presence of blood proteins, WBCs, or bile, and changes in color or odor (e.g., sweet odor in diabetes).
• How does the bladder function in urine storage?


  The bladder stores urine with an average capacity of 1-2 pints.
• What controls the release of urine (micturition)?


  The detrusor muscle contracts, opening internal (involuntary) and external (voluntary) sphincters.
• What is the purpose of diuretics?


  Diuretics increase urine output to lower blood pressure.