ethical issues

• 4 major ethical issues

  • informed consent
  • deception
  • protection from harm
  • privacy and confidentiality
• Informed consent

  • involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights
  • including the right to withdraw
  • what their data will be used for
  • px should then make an informed judgement whether or not to take part without being coerced or feeling obliged
• From the researcher's point of view, asking for informed consent may make the study meaningless because participants' behaviour will not be 'natural' as they know the aims of the study.
• Dealing with informed consent

  • a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate
  • if the px agrees, this is then signed
  • for investigations involving children under 16, a signature of parental consent is required
• Presumptive consent

  • rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable
  • if this group agrees, then consent of the original participants is 'presumed'
• Prior general consent

  • px give their permission to take part in a number of different studies - including one that will involve deception
  • by consenting, participants are effectively consenting to be deceived
• Retrospective consent

  • px are asked for their consent (during debriefing) having already taken part in the study
  • they may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception
• Deception

  • deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation
  • Px who have not received adequate information when they agreed to take part (or worse, have been deliberately lied to) cannot be said to have given informed consent
  • There are occasions when deception can be justified if it does not cause the participant undue distress
• Dealing with deception

  • px should be given a full debrief, made aware of the true aims of the investigation and any details they were not supplied with during the study, such as the existence of other groups or experimental conditions
  • should also be told what their data will be used for
  • must be given the right to withdraw during the study and the right to withhold data if they wish
  • important if retrospective consent is a feature of the study
• Protection from harm

  • px should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm
  • the latter includes being made to feel embarrassed, inadequate or being placed under undue stress or pressure
  • reminded of the fact that they have the right to withdraw
• Dealing with protection from harm

  • Px should be reassured that their behaviour was typical or normal
  • In extreme cases, if participants have been subject to stress or embarrassment, they may require counselling, which the researcher should provide
• Privacy and confidentiality

  • Px have the right to control information about themselves - the right of privacy
  • If this is invaded then confidentiality should be protected
  • Confidentiality refers to our right, enshrined in law under the Data Protection Act, to have any personal data protected
  • The right to privacy extends to the area where the study took place such that institutions or geographical locations are not named
• Dealing with confidentiality

  • If personal details are held these must be protected
  • However it is more usual to simply record no personal details, i.e. maintain anonymity
  • Researchers usually refer to participants using numbers or initials when writing up the investigation
  • In a case study, psychologists often use initials when describing the individual or individuals involved
  • Standard practice that during briefing and debriefing, participants are reminded that their data will be protected throughout the process and told that the data will not be shared with other researchers