Criminal psychology

• Explain how the research by Raine et al (1997) could be used to understand physiological explanations of criminal behaviour [10]


  Aim - investigate differences in brain activity of murderers in areas associated with aggressive behaviour, Design - Quasi experiment, Matched pairs, Sample - 41 murderers, 2 weeks no meds, Procedure - FDG injected and scanned after 32 min, cortical peel technique while continuous performance task, Results - lower activity in prefrontal cortex (self control and emotion), parietal cortex, corpus callosum (rationality), amygdale and hippocampus (lack of inhibition, fearlessness, failure to learn from negative). Temporal cortex no difference, Conclusion - Reduced activity in brain areas linked to violence - may predispose to criminality. Not causal - identifies link with biology as quasi experiment, not all with brain abnormality criminal and vice versa, reductionist - environment plays role, unreliable - individual differences, gender bias + all in prison, small sample
• Discuss a biological strategy which may be used to prevent criminal in relation to the scenario (10)

  Diet and Lifestyle - Olds et al. 1998 prenatal diet reduced offspring criminal and antisocial behaviour, Raine et al. 2003 nutrition, exercise, stimulation reduced antisocial behaviour, Raine 2014 Omega 3 reduction in aggression, delinquency and attention problems. Surgery - Lewinson 1965 450 inmates recidivism dropped from 75 to 42%, Stoomer at al 1998 increases positive self image not attractiveness, Hormone Therapy - Willie & Beier 1998 castration 43% lower recidivism, Susman & Ponirakis 1997 testosterone and aggression link Evaluation - nurture on nature, individualised, freewill, although reductionist, ethics, unreliable - not causal
• Using the research by Raine et al. outline the physiological explanation of criminal behaviour (10)

  Aim - investigate differences in brain activity of murderers in areas associated with aggressive behaviour, Design - Quasi experiment, Matched pairs, Sample - 41 murderers, 2 weeks no meds, Procedure - FDG injected and scanned after 32 min, cortical peel technique while continuous performance task, compared to database Results - lower activity in prefrontal cortex (self control and emotion), parietal cortex, corpus callosum (rationality), amygdale and hippocampus (lack of inhibition, fearlessness, failure to learn from negative). Temporal cortex no difference, Conclusion - Reduced activity in brain areas linked to violence - may predispose to criminality. Physiological - brain activity linked to aggression or predisposes to aggression causing criminality, reduced activity in areas linked to no fear of consequences, lack of self control and emotion, irrationality
• Assess the validity of research into explanations of criminal behaviour [15]


  Valid - demand characteristics (Wille & Beier, 1998) none for (Raine) Lab experiments - standardised, controls (Raine) although some quasi, not causal (Sheldon,1942) (Lombroso, 1876) but identifies link for further research, ethnocentrism (Brunner, 1993) but biology mostly the same, scientific equipment - objective
• Assess the reliability of research into explanations of criminal behaviour [15]


  Reliable - Lab experiments standardised and controlled - although quasi, individual differences although Raine used matched pairs, subjective interpretation - not causal but identifies link, Raine's participants were in prison - confounding bias
• Discuss the methodological issues of research into explanations of criminal behaviour [15]

  validity - demand characteristics, lab experiments, causation, ethnocentrism, location, individual differences, bias - unwilling or screw you effect,
• Assess the ethical issues of research into explanations of criminal behaviour [15]


  harm/distress - MRI, right to withdraw - prisoners under authority (Raine), informed consent - demand characteristics, confidentiality - quantitative data produced, socially sensitive - biology determines criminality. Useful so ethical issues justifiable
• Assess the debate about whether psychology is a science with regard to research into physiological explanations of criminal behaviour [15]


  standardised controlled lab experiments - reliable, scientific equipment (Raine), validity - not causal and may not test hypothesis - individual differences, quantitative data, not quantifiable (subjective) mostly scientific
• Assess the usefulness of research into physiological explanations of criminal behaviour [15]

  understand causes - Genetics, brain hormones, effect a cure - ECT stimulate brain, hormone therapy (nurture), prevention - Diet & Lifestyle (Olds et al, Raine) Genetics. Useful for reducing crime
• Assess the nature/nurture debate with regard to explanations of criminal behaviour [15]


  nature - brain, genetics, hormones - reductionist and not causal, nurture - self esteem (Tzesniewski) SLT (Eron et al.) (Williams) nurture treatment can influence deterministic biology explanations, interaction (Mednick et al Biological 20% Adopted 14.7% both 24.5%)
• Assess the reductionism/ holism debate with regard to explanations of criminal behaviour [15]

  reductionist - brain, genetics, hormones, holistic - self esteem (Tzesniewski) SLT (Eron et al.) (Williams) interaction (Mednick et al Biological 20% Adopted 14.7% both 24.5%) Reductionist but allow for other explanations
• Assess the individual/situational debate with regard to explanations of criminal behaviour [15]


  Individual - genes, brain, hormones, situation - environment, peers, social influence, false dichotomy - too simplistic
• Assess the freewill/determinism debate with regard to explanations of criminal behaviour [15]


  determined by biology, freewill to change using nurture on nature - Susman and Ponirakis, Wille and Beier, Lewinson,
• Scarlett is worried about her son Josh and his friends. They are often involved in fights at school and she thinks Josh might have started stealing. Josh's dad was always aggressive and is in prison for theft. Scarlett is wondering what might be causing Josh's behaviour. Discuss how a criminal psychologists might apply their knowledge of two different explanations of criminal behaviour to help Scarlett to understand possible causes of Josh's behaviour [10]


  Hormones - testosterone. Susman & Ponirakis - hormone therapy to reduce aggression, father's influence - keep away from prison - Sutherland, TV aggression - Eron et al. Williams - reduce violent tv programmes
• Using the research by Hall and Player (2008) explain how motivating factors and bias could affect the collection and processing of forensic evidence [10]

  Aim - to see if trained fingerprint experts affected by emotional context, Design - Field experiment, independent measures, Sample - 70 fingerprint experts from Metropolitan Police Fingerprint Bureau, 3mths to 30yrs experience, Procedure - No time limit, treat as ordinary day, scanned fingermark onto £50 notes, ambiguous match, magnifying glass and Russell comparator, asked if was match, was not, or inconclusive Results - 57/70 read crime scene examination report before analysis, 52% of high emotion context felt affected, 6% low emotion. No difference in final decision/confidence Conclusion - no effect on decision, further research needed, emotion may lead to contextual bias - context should be withheld to prevent bias - more likely to find a match however no difference found in this study
• Explain how the research by Hall and Player (2008) could be used to improve the way forensic evidence is collected and processed [10]


  Aim - to see if trained fingerprint experts affected by emotional context, Design - Field experiment, independent measures, Sample - 70 fingerprint experts from Metropolitan Police Fingerprint Bureau, 3mths to 30yrs experience, Procedure - No time limit, treat as ordinary day, scanned fingermark onto £50 notes, ambiguous match, magnifying glass and Russell comparator, asked if was match, was not, or inconclusive Results - 57/70 read crime scene examination report before analysis, 52% of high emotion context felt affected, 6% low emotion. No difference in final decision/confidence Conclusion - no effect on decision, further research needed. De-bias by withholding context - ensure that contextual bias does not influence decision by fingerprint expert. More objective results that ensure accuracy
• Assess the ethical issues involved when researching the ways in which motivating factors and bias could affect the collection and processing of forensic evidence [15]

  Confidentiality - anonymous, socially sensitive - want to get task right and prove worth determined emotions so not objective, harm/distress - pressure of being observed in work environment, deception - participants not know that fingermark is false (Dror, Kassin, Hall & Player, Miller)
• Discuss the methodological issues involved when researching the ways in which motivating factors and bias could affect the collection and processing of forensic evidence [15]


  Demand characteristics - act differently or use deception - ethical issues. Standardised, reliable procedure - individual differences may affect, high eco validity although not controlled, some use self report for assessing emotion - bias and subjective
• Assess the reliability of research into how motivating factors and bias could affect the collection and processing of forensic evidence [15]

  Reliable - standardised procedures - some field which realistic but not controlled, unreliable - subjective self report bias, individual differences - motivation, experience, age, gender,
• Assess the validity of research into how motivating factors and bias could affect the collection and processing of forensic evidence [15]

  ecological validity of field experiments - not controlled so confounding variables or individual differences - not causal, repeated measures - would act as own baseline but demand characteristics, sample - 70 so quite large but ethnocentric, demand characteristics - biased results
• Assess the usefulness of research into how motivating factors and bias could affect the collection and processing of forensic evidence [15]


  prevent false identification - fair justice - emotional context (Hall and Player), reduce bias- improve techniques such as blinding (Miller) increase accuracy - keep public safe (Dror et al) - fillers when suspect likely perpetrator
• Assess the freewill/ determinism debate with regard to motivating factors and bias in collection and processing of forensic evidence [15]


  affected by emotion, contextual bias - more likely to find a match, expectation bias - incorrectly identify perpetrator Job satisfaction, motivation, fear of failure, cast importance (Charlton et al.) May not let emotions influence response (Hall&Player)
• Assess the debate about whether psychology is a science with regard to research into the collection and processing of forensic evidence [15]


  Subjective interpretation, quantitative results (Hall&Player), unreliable self report, hypothesis testing, randomly assigned groups - individual differences, cannot ensure demand characteristics not involved
• A series of high profile armed crimes have been committed in a town called Lymdon recently. Forensic experts have been processing the evidence. There are several possible suspects, including one with a previous conviction for possession of weapons. Discuss how motivating factors and bias could affect the collection and processing of forensic evidence in this case [10]


  Charlton et al. Motivation - high profile so job at risk, case importance - keep public safe, job satisfaction - small town so recognize as hero, contextual bias - weapons (Hall&Player), expectation bias - suspect with previous convictio
• Explain how the research by Memon and Highman (1999) could be used to improve the way evidence is collected though police interviews [10]


  Aim:Review of cognitive interview (Context reinstatement, different perspective, different starting point, recall everything), test effectiveness of various components, rel'ship CI and SI plus structured interview, measures of memory performance and effects of training, Memon (1996)- no sig. diff. Between components, Milne (1997) - context reinstatement most effective recall, full CI most accurate Standard interview not standardised, training and motivation affect effectiveness, measures of memory lab exps low eco. validity. Quantitative results lack detail , CI more demanding and exhausting, quality and quantity of training key, ind. diffs. of interviewer. Training programmes for interviewers, move poor interviewers into other areas, further research needed, compare with structured interview as is standardised, all components of CI important to complete
• Discuss the effectiveness of using the cognitive interview technique [10]


  Context reinstatement, different perspective, different starting point, recall everything, Memon & Highman - review of lab experiments, Context reinstatement most accurate, CI more effective overall, lab exp low eco validity and SI not standardised. Plan, Engage Explain, Account clarify challenge, Closure, Evaluation - build rapport and thorough, evaluation provides feedback. Training very important , Grant et al. 1996 context important - not done in PEACE
• Discuss the methodological issues of research the collection and use of evidence from witnesses and suspects [15]


  standardised procedure needed to compare interview techniques and SI not standardised (Memon&Highman) (Fisher et al.), lab exps - low eco validity (Loftus & Palmer), demand characteristics - aim must be unknown, individual differences
• Assess the ethical issues of research into the collection and use of evidence from witnesses and suspects [15]


  Deceit to reduce demand characteristics (Loftus, 1979) Distress of seeing crime (Christianson&Hubinette) socially sensitive - doubts interviewers and suspect evidence (Pedzek et al.) Consent - cannot give full consent if aim withheld (Brewer&Trewen)
• Assess the usefulness of research into the collection and use of evidence from witnesses and suspects [15]


  Useful - improve interviewing technique (Memon&Highman), identify areas for further research, improve accuracy/quality rather than quantity (Pedzek et al.) Not useful - not ecologically valid lab exps, demand characteristics lower validity, validity of evidence doubted - socially sensitive,
• Assess the debate about whether psychology is a science with regard to research into the collection and use of evidence from witnesses and suspects [15]


  Variables manipulated, hypothesis testing, subjective results - demand characteristics, bias, socially desirability, SI not standardise - unreliable, lab exps controlled - standardised but confounding variables affect - individual differences
• Daryl is a detective who believes he could improve the success of interviews with suspects. He suggested asking witnesses to sleep at the police station and playing them sounds known to have been audible at the time of the incident, such as dogs barking, traffic noise or music. The witness would then be woken up and re-interviewed. Discuss how a psychologist could investigate whether Daryl's new interview technique could improve the collection of evidence [10]


  Context reinstatement - sounds as traces, compare with other aspects of CI (Milne 1997) - repeated measures although may produce demand characteristics, p acts as own baseline to reduce effect of individual differences (Memon&Highman), analyse accuracy of info provided with real info (Pedzek) Could use video of crime - Loftus & Palmer- lower eco validity as not as affecting? Ethics - deceit, distress, socially sensitive - must debrief
• Using the research by Dixon et al.( 2002) explain how juries can be persuaded by characteristics of witnesses and defendants [10]


  Aim - whether Brummie accent produce stronger attributions of guilt than standard, race and type of crime influence. Method - Brummie or Standard, Black or White, Blue or White collar, 119p's listened to tape of crime, Ind. Measures, 7 point scale of guilt, Speech evaluation instrument, Results - Brummie more guilty, Brummie, black, blue - most guilty, superiority and attractiveness - guilty.
• Not only is language/accent important in determining guilt -Mahoney&Dixon, but race and attractiveness too(more guilty), converse to Stewart 1985
• Assess the validity of research into psychology and the courtroom [15]


  juries confidential so mock juries used - low eco validity, shadow jury - no responsibility for consequence, lab exp - controlled, standardised, reduce confounding variables, all Dixon's sample were white students - ethnocentrism as cultural and social bias affect generalisability of results, repeated measures would see p's act as own baseline - counter effect of ind. diffs. - demand characteristics would lower validity,
• Discuss the methodological issues of research psychology and the courtroom [15]


  lab exp- controlled and standardised but low eco validity , real juries - no qualitative data so assumptions, bias made (Stewart) mock jury, shadow jury, ethnocentrism (Dixon, Broeder, Stewart), generalisability, representative sample, individual differences, bias in interpretation - racial bias (Brewer)
• Assess the ethical issues of research into psychology and the courtroom [15]


  Distressing content, Dixon students pressured to take part - right to withdraw, informed consent - deceit or aim not known to reduce demand characteristics, Stewart - consent of observation and privacy, socially sensitive content - racial bias Dixon et al.
• Assess the usefulness of research into psychology and the courtroom [15]


  bias outlined so can improve objectiveness of jury - bias in interpretation and low eco validity - informing of bias may not reduce it. Allow witnesses to appear less guilty, more realistic - defendants may then take advantage and appear less guilty. Range of jury members to reduce bias - representative sample
• Assess the debate about whether psychology is a science with regard to research into psychology and the courtroom [15]


  Dixon - lab exp, fake interview - low eco valid, replicable standardised and controlled, cause and effect hard to establish so not valid, Broeder - subject interpretation, bias of interpretation - Stewart, low generalisability - students Dixon,
• Assess the freewill/determinism debate with regard to psychology and the courtroom [15]


  Determined by factors such as language, accent, appearance, race (Broeder, Stewart, Seggie, Brewer) - freewill to decide who is guilty, freewill if bias known - then determined by cognitive bias
• Assess the ethnocentrism of psychology and the courtroom [15]


  biased interpretation as social and cultural influences experimenter - Stewart, Broeder, Brewer. Samples usually white, students - Dixon, Stewart, cannot generalise to all juries e.g. blacks may see other blacks as less guilty or Aussies more likely to see UK as guilty - Seggie