Gender

• Sex

  • The biological differences between males and females
  • Chromosomes, hormones and anatomy
  • Chromosomes influence hormonal differences as well as anatomy
  • e.g. reproductive organs, body shape, hair growth
  • Sex is innate - nature
• Gender

  • Physiological and cultural differences between males and females
  • Attitudes, behaviours, social roles
  • Heavily influenced by social norms and expectations
  • Partly environmentally determined
  • Due to nurture
  • Open to change
• Gender dysphoria

  The biologically prescribed sex does not reflect the individual's gender identity
• Sex-role stereotypes

  • Preconceived ideas about what is accepted for men and women in a given society
  • Reinforced by parents, peers, the media and institutions
  • May lead to sexist assumptions being formed
• Research into sex-role stereotypes

  • Smith and Lloyd (1978)
  • Showed that mothers treat boy and girl babies differently, in line with stereotypes
  • 32 mothers videoed playing with a baby for 10 minutes
  • 6 months old, dressed and named as a boy or girl
  • When playing with a boy, the mother encouraged more motor activity and gender-appropriate toys
  • Responded to the perceived sex of the infant in line with gender stereotypes
• Androgyny

  A balance of masculine and feminine characteristics, behaviours and attitudes
• Androgyny and Bem

  • Bem developed a method for measuring androgyny
  • Suggested high androgyny is associated with psychological wellbeing
  • Better equipped to adapt to a range of situations
  • Those who score highly on one scale have a more limited range of skills
• Research into androgyny

  • Wesiner and Wilson-Mitchell (1990)
  • Suggests environmental factors are the cause of physical androgyny
  • Compared children raised in families that put an emphasis on traditional gender roles vs families that actively downplay gender roles
  • Androgyny was higher in children encouraged to ignore traditional gender roles
• Bem's sex-role inventory (BSRI)

  • Self-report questionnaire
  • 1974

  How BSRI was created:

  • Asked 50 male and 50 female students to rate personality traits as being masculine or feminine
  • Most highly rated "masculine", "feminine" and "neutral" were used to form the questionnaire

  BSRI method:

  • Measured the mix of masculine or feminine traits present in an individual
  • Scale presents 20 "masculine", 20 "feminine" and 20 "neutral" traits
  • Respondents rate themselves 1-7 on each trait
  • Scores are classified along masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated
• Evaluation of Bem's sex-role inventory

  Association between androgyny and psychological wellbeing


  • Bem placed emphasis on the idea that androgynous individuals are more psychologically healthy
  • They are better adapted to a wide range of situations
  • However, this assumption has been challenged
  • Some researchers argue that those who display a larger number of masculine traits are better adjusted
  • They are more valued in Western society
  • Suggests that Bem's research may have not taken adequate account of the social and cultural context in which it was developed
• Evaluation of Bem's sex-role inventory

  Use of questionnaires


  • Relies on an individual's own understanding of their personality and behaviour that they may not have
  • Gender is a hypothetical construct which is much more open to interpretation
  • Furthermore, the questionnaire's scoring system is subjective
  • People's interpretation of the scale may differ
  • Suggests the BSRI suffers from methodological flaws
  • May mean it is not measuring what it intended to measure
  • Reduces validity
• Role of hormones and chromosomes

  Atypical sex chromosome patterns

  • Chromosomes made from DNA
  • Genes are sections of DNA that determine characteristics
  • 23 pairs - the 23ʳᵈ determines biological sex
  • All egg cells have X
  • Half of the sperm cells have X, half have Y
  • Y chromosome carries a gene called the sex determining region Y (SRY)
  • Causes testes to develop in an XY chromosome
  • These produces androgens: male sex hormones which cause the embryo to become male
• The role of hormones

  • Chemical substance circulated in the bloodstream that regulates activity of cells/organs
  • Chromosomes initially determine sex, but gender development s through the influence of hormones
  • In the womb, hormones act upon the brain and cause the development of reproductive organs (primary sexual characteristic)
  • At puberty, a burst of hormonal activity triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics
  • Males and females produce many of the same hormones, just in different concentrations
• Testosterone

  • Controls development of male sex organs
  • Linked to aggression

  Nanne de van Poll et al. (1988)

  • Female rats injected with testosterone become more physically and sexually aggressive

  Congenital Adrenal Hypothesis (CAH)

  • Rare genetic disorder than causes high prenatal levels of testosterone
  • Affects males and females
  • More easily identified in girls who may have more ambiguous genitals

  Berenbaum and Bailey (2003)

  • Females with CAH are "tomboys", show high levels of aggression and a preference for male toys
• Oestrogen

  • As well as physical changes, oestrogen causes some women to experience heightened emotion and irritability during menstrual activity (PMT - when diagnosed, PMS)

  Craddock

  • Released on probation and given progesterone after shoplifting and murder - used PMS as a defence
• Oxytocin

  • Causes contraction of the uterus
  • Stimulates lactation
  • Women produce larger quantities than men, particularly in birth
  • Reduces cortisol and facilitates bonding
  • Referred to as the "love hormone"
  • Evidence suggests both sexes produce oxytocin in roughly equal amounts during amorous activities
• Evaluation of the role of chromosomes and hormones

  Bruce


  • Botched circumcision at 6 months - most of his penis was burnt off
  • Dr Money believed biological sex was less important than environmental influences
  • He encouraged Bruce's parents to raise him as a girl, Brenda
  • Brenda suffered from severe psychological issues and returned to living as a man, David
  • This outcome suggests biological influences (chromosomes, XY) are more important than socialisation (raising him as a girl)
• Evaluation of the role of chromosomes and hormones

  Bruce - counterpoint

  • However, Tricker et al. (1996) conducted a double blind study where 43 males were injected with testosterone or a placebo over 10 weeks
  • Researchers found no difference in behaviour between the 2 groups
  • Shows that whilst biological influences are important, there is a limit to how much it influences behaviour
• Evaluation of the role of chromosomes and hormones

  Objection to PMS

  • Many have questioned the effects of oestrogen on a woman's mood and object to the medical category of PMS as it stereotypes female experience and emotion
  • Feminist critiques claim that it is a social construct
  • They have pointed to the medicalisation of women's emotions by explaining them in biological terms
• Klinefelter's syndrome

  • Biologically male
  • Extra X chromosome
  • Affects 1/500-1000

  Physical characteristics

  • Reduced body hair
  • Gynecomastia
  • Rounding of body contours
  • Long limbs
  • Underdeveloped genitals
  • Co-ordination problems

  Psychological characteristics

  • Poor language, reading, memory and problem-solving abilities
  • Passive and shy
  • Do not respond well to stressful situations
• Turner's syndrome

  • Biologically female
  • Absence of an X chromosome
  • Affects 1/5000

  Physical characteristics

  • No menstrual cycle
  • Ovaries fail to develop
  • Do not develop breasts
  • Webbed neck
  • Small hips
  • Appears pre-pubescent

  Psychological characteristics

  • Higher than average reading ability
  • Socially immature
  • Poor spatial awareness, memory and maths skills
  • Difficulty fitting in
• Evaluation of atypical chromosome patterns

  Contribute to understanding of nature vs nurture


  • By comparing people with atypical and typical chromosome patterns, we can see behavioural and psychological differences
  • It can be logically inferred that the differences have a biological basis - a result of the abnormal chromosome structure
  • Suggests innate influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour
• Evaluation of atypical chromosome patterns

  Differences associated with Klinefelter's and Turner's syndrome is not causal

  • May be that environmental and social influences are more responsible for the behavioural differences
  • e.g. social immaturity in Turner's syndrome may be the fact that they are treated immaturely by the people around them
  • Wrong to assume the psychological and behavioural characteristics are due to nature
• Evaluation of atypical chromosome patterns

  Earlier and more accurate diagnosis


  • Australian study of 87 individuals with Klinefelter's syndrome showed that those identified and treated from a young age had significant benefit compared to those diagnosed in adulthood
  • Suggests increased awareness of these conditions may have practical application
• Cognitive approach

  Kohlberg's theory

  • Cognitive-developmental theory of gender (1966)
  • Idea that a child's understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age
  • Understanding runs parallel to intellectual development as the child matures biologically

  3 stages:

  • Gender identity
  • Gender stability
  • Gender constancy
• Gender identity

  • 2-3 years
  • Aged 2 - children correctly identify themselves as girl or boy
  • Aged 3 - children identify others as male and female
  • Unaware that sex is permanent
  • Easily fooled by appearances
• Gender stability

  • 4 years
  • Realise they will always stay the same gender
  • Cannot apply this logic to others' gender
  • Still confused by external changes in appearance
• Gender constancy

  • 6-7 years
  • Recognise that gender is consistent across time and situations
  • Understanding applied to others' gender
  • No longer fooled by external appearances
• Evaluation of Kohlberg's theory

  Evidence supports the stages

  • Slaby & Frey (1975)
  • Children presented with split-screen images of males and females performing the same tasks
  • Younger children spent roughly the same time watching each sex
  • However, children in the gender constancy stage spent longer looking at the model the same sex as them
  • Suggests Kohlberg's theory is correct in the assumption that children who have acquired gender constancy seek gender appropriate models
• Evaluation of Kohlberg's theory

  Evidence supports the stages - counterpoint

  • Methodological issues
  • Kohlberg's theory was developed using interviews with children as young as 2-3 years old
  • Questions were tailored towards the particular age groups
  • However, Kohlberg did not acknowledge that young children who lack vocabulary may not be able to express their understanding
  • They may have had complex ideas but do not possess the verbal ability to articulate them
  • Therefore, what they express does not truly represent their understanding
• Evaluation of Kohlberg's theory

  Comparison with the biological approach

  • Argument that changes in understanding of gender are maturational gains support from the biological approach which sees gender as genetically determined
  • Kohlberg's view is in line with the biological approach , suggesting that gender development is genetically governed
  • The stages are influenced heavily by changes in a developing child's brain and increased cognitive and intellectual capacity with age
  • Also supported by Munroe et al. (1984) who found cultural evidence of the stages and suggests they may be universal
• Evaluation of Kohlberg's theory

  Comparison with the biological approach - additional

  • Imitation of role models
  • Gender constancy stage is significant in the fact that children of this age begin to seek gender appropriate models to identify with and imitate
  • Stated that once a child has fully developed and internalised the concept of gender at the constancy stage, they embark upon an active search for evidence to confirm the concept
  • Links to social learning theory as external influences and the role of socialisation
• Gender schema theory

  • Martin and Halverson
  • Cognitive-developmental theory
  • Argues children's understanding of gender increases with age
  • Shares Kohlberg's view: children develop their own understanding rather than observing/imitating role models (SLT)

  Different to Kohlberg:

  • Acquiring gender-related behaviour happens before gender constancy - basic gender identity is all that is needed for the child to take an interest in gender-appropriate behaviours
  • Suggests schemas affect later behaviour: memory and attention
• Gender schema after gender identity

  • Schema - mental constructs that develop via experience and are used by our cognitive system to organise knowledge around particular topics
  • Gender schema - generalised representation of everything we know about gender
  • Martin and Halverson stated that once gender is established around 2-3 years, they will begin to search the environment for information that encourages schemas
• Gender schema in determining behaviour

  • Schema expands to include a wide range of behaviour and personality traits
  • Young children - schemas are likely to be formed around stereotypes
  • These provide a framework that directs experience as well as the child's understanding of themselves
  • 6 years old
• Ingroups

  • The group with which a person identifies
  • e.g. being a girl, you identify with the "girl" ingroup
  • Once the child has identified with an ingroup, they positively evaluate it to enhance their self-esteem
  • This evaluation motivates a child to be like their own group
  • They also actively seek out information about what their own group does (ingroup schemas)
  • According to GST, before gender constancy, children focus on ingroup schemas
  • It is not until ~8 that they develop elaborate schemas for both genders
• Outgroups

  • The group with which a person does not identify
  • e.g. being a girl, you do not identify with the "boy" outgroup
  • Once identified, they negatively evaluate the outgroup
  • They avoid the behaviour of their outgroup
• Gender schema theory

  Supporting evidence

  • Martin and Halverson
  • Children under 6 years old were more likely to remember photos of gender-consistent behaviour than gender-inconsistent behaviour when tested a week later
  • They changed the gender of the inconsistent behaviour
  • Supports the idea that memory may be distorted to fit existing schemas
  • Supports GST which predicts that children under 6 would do this
  • Kohlberg predicted this would only happen when children are older
• Earlier gender identity

  • Gender identity probably develops earlier than GST suggested
  • Longitudinal study
  • 82 children
  • Onset of gender identity
  • Twice-weekly reports from mothers on their children's language age 9-21 months
  • Videotaped analysis of the children labelling themselves boy or girl
  • Occurred on average at 19 months, as soon as they begin to communicate
  • Suggests children have a gender identity before this
  • Suggests Martin & Halverson underestimated children's ability to use gender labels
  • May not be appropriate to argue specific ages for GST
  • Ages are averages
• Social learning theory

  • The role that social context plays in gender development
  • All behaviour is learned from observing others
  • Implies no psychological differences between males and females at birth
  • Gender differences occur because of the way society treats children