Approaches to health and illness

• The genes we inherit from our parents contribute to our health and illness, but do not determine it. We do not inherit a gene for health, but we inherit a predisposition that makes us more or less likely to be healthy/ill. This doesn’t mean we are going to develop an illness, as it depends on other factors that act as a trigger such as smoking. This is genetic predisposition
• PKU is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in a single gene. If you have PKU you cannot process a particular chemical in food. Many people with PKU are put in a restricted diet that removes high protein foods. Inheriting the PKU gene is a biological influence but the restricted diet is an environmental influence, so genes do not determine the outcome on its own, it depends on environmental influence also.
• normally most neurotransmitters are ‘in balance’ with levels neither too high or too low, however for reasons such as stress, genetics etc, levels can become imbalanced with various effects on behaviour depending on the levels
• physical health and serotonin- when exercising, serotonin is increased in several areas of the brain and it improves sleep quality, alertness and digestion
• 
  

  Neurotransmitter imbalances have been linked to serious psychological disorders such as schizophrenia. Imbalances in dopamine, serotonin and other neurotransmitters in the brain are associated with various symptoms of schizophrenia
• although genes cannot be altered, lifestyle and environmental changes can reduce the risk of disease and improve health in people with a genetic predisposition- practical use
• One weakness of the biological influence on being healthy or not is that it oversimplifies the causes of health. For example, genetic predisposition is indirect and so the causes of health are complex and involve other explanations
• Positive reinforcement can explain healthy and unhealthy behaviour. When the consequences of a behaviour are rewarded, the reward reinforces the behaviour and makes it more likely to happen again (e.g. gaining happiness via chemicals after exercising, or feeling relaxed when sitting around watching tv)
• Negative reinforcement can explain healthy and unhealthy behaviours. When you avoid an unpleasant consequence of a behaviour when rewarded. (E.g. engaging in exercise to avoid feeling guilty)
• Healthy and unhealthy behaviour can be explained by cues. E.g. when a smoker sees a lighter, the pleasurable feeling of smoking is being reinforced. The lighter becomes associated with pleasure and becomes a cue.
• A strength of operant conditioning in healthy and unhealthy behaviours id that it can be used to change behaviours when other interventions haven’t worked
• A weakness of operant conditioning in healthy and unhealthy behaviours is that it is a less effective method in encouraging healthy behaviours than other approaches e.g. cognitive
• When an observer observes a models behaviour being rewarded (e.g. a child watching a parent enjoying exerciding) they can be vicariously reinforced
• Using negative reinforcement encourages healthy eating as the person avoids unpleasant feelings (e.g. guilt) associated with eating unhealthy food.
• One strength is operant conditioning can create real world healthy behaviours. For example, token economy is used on hospital wards to motivate patients to be physically active. The coin has no value but can be exchanged for treats so it positively reinforces healthy behaviours
• Psychologists can use behaviour modification to help with addiction. Behaviour modification is used to increase desired behaviours and characteristics and decrease what is not wanted via token economy.
• A weakness of using operant conditioning in explaining health problems/addictions is that it is only limited to a narrow range of behaviours. It may be less effective way in encouraging healthy behaviours.
• A strength of behaviourist explanations is that there is research evidence of reinforcement.
• A role model is someone we identify with and also have qualities we like and we look up to.
• The Social Learning theory can explain health behaviours via role models, imitation, observation, vicarious reinforcement and modelling
• Strengths of SLT to explain health problems include practical uses - interventions based on modelling healthy behaviours are useful. There is research support showing modelling can explain the development of behaviours.
• A weakness of the SLT in explaining health problems and addictions is that it doesn’t give a full explanation - there are other factors such as biological
• Cognitive dissonance are conflicting beliefs to mental discomfort. An example could be: spending money when you need to save it, and then feel guilty about it afterwards.
• Some signs of cognitive dissonance include feeling uncomfortable before doing it, trying to justify the action and feeling embarrassed afterwards
• Festingers Cognitive Dissonance Theory (1957) - suggests we have an ‘inner drive‘ to hold all our attitudes and behaviours in harmony and avoid disharmony.
• The principle of ‘cognitive consistency’ is when there is inconstancy between attitudes/behaviours, something must change to eliminate the dissonance.
• There can be professional biases in diagnosis and treatment. Confirmation bias is the tendency to favour the information that supports your belief. Schemas and stereotypes may influence doctors views and can influence diagnosis and treatment
• A strength of the cognitive approach in making health related decisions is that there is support that cognitive dissonance is an effective way to change behaviour. Simmons and Brandon 2007 studied the effect of cognitive dissonance on smoking behaviour. They found that people who were more likely to smoke were more likely to experience cognitive dissonance.