1. origins of the republic 1918-29

• By autumn 1918 it was clear that Germany would lose World War One. From November onwards a series of events occurred which became known as the German Revolution.
• 3rd november 1918

  main German naval base in Kiel

  frustrated German sailors mutinied instead of following orders to attack the British Royal Navy

  > sailor’s mutiny sparked rebellions all over Germany and in a matter of days led to the collapse of the German government 

  effect: forced Kaiser Wilhelm II to abdicate on 9th november 1918

  > Friedrich Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) became Chancellor and took power over germany
• end of WW1 - armistace

  11 november 1918

  armistace agreed with allies (france, america and britain) and germany surrendered

  armistice was signed by representatives of the new, civilian government (Ebert and members of the SPD).

  later, their opponents started to call them the 'November Criminals' – people who had signed the armistice behind the Germany army’s back. > Dolchstoßlegende – the ‘stab-in-the–back’ theory.
• the weimar republic

  January 1919: elections had given the SPD party the most power

  Friedrich Ebert, leader of the SPD, became the first democratically chosen President

  he and his party drew up a new constitution for germany

  they met in the town of Weimar as Berlin was deemed too unsafe after the Spartacist uprising earlier in the month.

  august 1919: despite the large amount of german deputies (MPs) who voted against it, the new constitution was signed and approved
• The Weimar Republic was set up as a representative democracy which tried to give genuine power to all German adults. However, it had major flaws
• strengths of the weimar government

  • A genuine democracy: Elections for parliament and president took place every four years and all Germans over 20 could vote.
  • The power of the Reichstag: The Reichstag appointed the government and made all laws. This was very different from its powers before the war under the Kaiser.
  • A Bill of Rights: This guaranteed every German citizen freedom of speech and religion, and equality under the law.
• weaknesses of the weimar government

  • Proportional representation

   Each party got the same percentage of seats in parliament as the percentage of votes it received in an election.

  >there were lots of small parties in Parliament

  >making it difficult to pass laws ---> weak and often short-lived governments.

  • Article 48

   This gave the president the power to act without parliament’s approval in an emergency.

  However, it did not clearly define what an 'emergency' was, ---> power was overused

  >which weakened Germans’ confidence in democracy.
• challenges to the early weimar government

  many germans hated government for signing armistace (novermber criminals)

  defeat in the war came as a huge surprise to the German people, and many ordinary German soldiers

  > led to a theory that the brave German army had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the politicians.
• challenges to early weimar government

  In early 1919 the victorious Allies met to discuss how to punish Germany

  • 28 June 1919: the new German government was forced to sign a peace settlement (Treaty of Versailles).
  • The treaty punished Germany militarily, territorially and financially.
  • Many Germans felt their country had received a very harsh deal in the treaty and resented the government for agreeing to its conditions.
  • However, German government had been given an ultimatum – sign within five days or risk invasion.
• terms of the treaty (BRAT) - blame

  Germany was forced to accept the blame for starting the war under article 231 of the treaty, known as the War Guilt Clause
• terms of the treaty (BRAT) - reperations

  germany had to pay £6.6 billion for the damages caused to france and britain
• terms of the treaty (BRAT) - armed forces

  • maximum of 100,000 troops were allowed in the army
  • conscription (compulsory service) banned
  • tanks banned
  • navy was reduced to 15,000 personnel
  • only allowed 6 battleships
  • submarines banned
• terms of the treaty (BRAT) - territory

  • Alsace-Lorraine went back to France.
  • France also took the coal from the Saar region, and eventually the ruhr would be occupied by france
  • The Rhineland was demilitarised – this would provide France with an extra ‘buffer zone’ of protection
  • ‘Anchluß’ – Anschluss – the union of Germany and Austria – was forbidden.
• The Weimar Republic's unpopularity meant it faced violent uprisings from both sides of the political spectrum during 1919 and 1920.
• threat from the LEFT: sparticist uprising

  sparticists: communist party in post-World War One Germany.

  they rebelled in berlin, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht

  • government was saved when friekorps defeated the sparticist rebels
  • in the aftermath, communist workers' councils seized power all over Germany, and a Communist People's Government took power in Bavaria
  • Liebknecht and Luxemburg were killed by the Freikorps
  • May 1919: the Freikorps had crushed all of these uprisings
• threat from the RIGHT: freikorps

  • Freikorps had saved the government, but the terms of the Treaty of Versailles meant Germany’s army had to be significantly reduced and the Freikorps had to be disbanded
  • as a reaction to this, the right-wing nationalist, Dr Wolfgang Kapp led a Freikorps takeover in Berlin
  • The regular army refused to attack the Freikorps
  • wolfgang Kapp was only defeated when the workers of Berlin went on strike and refused to cooperate with him
• other violence

  Nationalist terrorists assassinated 356 government politicians

  Judges in their trials, many of whom preferred the Kaiser's government (and therefore hated the weimar government), consistently gave these terrorists light sentences, or let them go free.
• The Weimar government's main crisis occurred in 1923 after the Germans missed a reparations payment late in 1922. This set off a chain of events that included occupation, hyperinflation and rebellions.
• french and belgium occupation of thr ruhr

  November 1922: Germany defaulted on its reparations payment as scheduled.

  >The first reparations payment had taken all she could afford to pay. The French believed Germany could make the repayment but were choosing not to

  France and Belgium sent troops into Germany’s main industrial area, the Ruhr Valley.

  Their aim was to confiscate industrial goods as reparations

  They occupied coal mines, railways, steel works and factories – all things that were important to Germany’s economy.
• french and belgium occupation of the ruhr (2!)

  German government ordered workers to follow a policy of ‘passive resistance’ – refusing to work or co-operate, and in return the government payed their wages

  the french responded firmly, and workers were shot at, others were expelled from the ruhr region

  132 were killed and approximately 150,000 expelled

  governments response: print more money to pay workers (worsening hyperinflation)

  general strike was called (all of germany's workers)

  LOTS OF POLITICAL INSTABILITY
• hyperinflation winners

  • Borrowers (businessmen, landowners and those with mortgages) found they were able to pay back their loans easily with worthless money.
  • People on wages were relatively safe, because they renegotiated their wages every day. However, even their wages eventually failed to keep up with prices.
  • Farmers coped well, since their products remained in demand and they received more money for them as prices spiralled.
• hyperinflation losers

  • People on fixed incomes (students, pensioners or the sick) found their incomes did not keep up with prices.
  • People with savings and those who had lent money, were the most badly hit as their money became worthless.
• rebellions

  the hyperinflation crisis sparked many rebellions

  • Communists also took over the Rhineland and declared it independent in the same month.
  • A fascist group called the Nazis attempted a putsch in Munich in November.
• recovery of the public 1924-1929 (golden years)

  1924-1929 was a time when the Weimar economy recovered and cultural life in Germany flourished. this was because

  august 1923: gustav stresseman became chancellor

  he was Chancellor for only three months but continued to serve as Foreign Minister, rebuilding and restoring Germany’s international status 
• end of hyperinflation

  stresseman ended hyperinflation by

  • Calling off the ‘passive resistance’ of German workers in the Ruhr. this helped Germany’s economy because goods were back in production and the Government could stop printing money to pay striking workers.
  • Promising to begin reparations payments again (persuaded France and Belgium to end the occupation of the Ruhr by 1925)
  • introducing a new currency called the Rentenmark. This stabilised prices as only a limited number were printed meaning money rose in value.
  • Reducing the amount of money the government spent (buget deficit reduced)
• dawes plan

  Proposed: April 1924

  agreed: September 1924

  reperation Stayed the same overall (50 billion Marks)

  first 5 years: only 1 billiom marks

  then 2.5 billion per year after that

  this would be played indefinitely

  Germany was loaned 800 million Marks from the USA
• young plan

  Proposed: August 1929

  agreed: January 1930

  Reduced the total amount of reperations by 20 per cent

  Germany was to pay 2 billion Marks per year, but 2/3 of it could be postponed each year if needed

  to be payed for 59 years, ending in 1988

  the US banks would continue to loan Germany money
• signs of recovery (1!)

  • By 1928 industrial production levels were higher than those of 1913 (before World War One). but agricultural production did not recover to its pre-war levels
  • Between 1925 and 1929 exports (sending goods) rose by 40 per cent. but it spent more on imports than it earned from exports (Germany was losing money every year)
• international relations

  After losing World War One, being forced to take the blame and the issues surrounding payment of reparations meant Germany was an international outcast
• Locarno Treaties 1925

  In October 1925 Germany, France and Belgium agreed to respect their post-Versailles borders

  whilst Germany agreed with Poland and Czechoslovakia to settle any border disputes peacefully.

  Germany had previously complained bitterly about their loss of territory.
• League of Nations 1926

  When the League of Nations was set up as part of the Versailles agreement Germany was initially excluded

  By signing the Locarno Treaties Germany showed that it was accepting the Versailles settlement

  > a year later germany was accepted as a permanent member of the Council of League

  ~ making it one of the most powerful countries in the League.
• Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928

  Germany was one of 62 countries that signed up to this agreement, which committed its signatories (countries who signed up) to settling disputes between them peacefully.
• These developments meant that Germany was accepted into the emerging ‘international community’ (who sought to avoid another destructive war).

  it helped Germany’s internal wounds to heal – the government was seen to be taking decisive action to make life better for people and right some of the wrongs that the Treaty of Versailles had caused.

  >This led to greater political stability and less extremism.

  this only lasted until the onset of the Great Depression following the Wall Street Crash of October 1929.
• changes in society, during the golden years

  improvements that helped ordinary germans

  • Hourly wages rose in real terms (above inflation) from 1924 to 1930
  • Pensions and sickness benefits schemes were introduced.
  • Compulsory unemployment insurance was introduced in 1927, which covered 17 million workers.
  • Government subsidies were provided for the building of local parks, schools and sports facilities, and there was a massive programme of council house construction.
• working women

  • Women experienced pressure to return to ‘traditional’ role as wives and mothers.
  • attitudes changed according to how well the economy did.
  • During times of economic crisis (hyperinflation and the Great Depression) women returning home were seen as a solution to unemployment.
  • (during golden years women welcomed to work) The number of women in work was 1.7 million higher in 1925 than it had been in 1907.
  • Women were increasingly taking on white collar jobs (mostly single under 25 women)
  • Overall, the percentage of women in work only rose by less than 1% 1907 and 1925.
• women in politics - recovery years

  august 1919: women achieved the vote, on an equal basis as men

  • progress women participated in democracy: Women’s voting turnout in the elections for the National Assembly in January 1919 was the same as men’s (82%).
  • politicians recognised women: Political parties quickly realised the need to appeal for women's vote ---> propaganda was directed towards them
  • women became politicians: Women were elected to local and regional assemblies all over Germany, made up around 8% of the representatives in the Prussian Landtag (most powerful regional parliament)
• women in politics - recovery years

  however, it was not all progress:

  • Not all women participated: During the rest of the Weimar period women’s voting turnout was typically 5-10% lower than that of men.
  • Politicians stereotyped women: Propaganda usually appealed to women as wives and mothers, rather than asking for their vote on the basis of improving their own lives.
  • Women didn't become very influential
  • 1933: women made up just 4.6% of representatives in parliament.
  • No women held cabinet posts
  • no women sat in the upper house of parliament (Reichsrat)

  Women and men seemed the same
• women and leisure

  • Most women continued reading as main leisure activity, (romantic fiction favoured)
  • working and middle class women enjoyed tea dances, so they could meet young men
  • In urban areas young middle class women began to go out to dance alone, (with American dance - Charleston -becoming popular in Berlin)
• women and leisure

  • Women enjoyed needlework
  • Women were estimated to have made up around 75% of cinema audiences during the 1920s, tickets were cheap but few cinemas in small towns ---> benefitted urban women
  • Gymnastics was a popular sport amongst women
  • Women began to take part in a greater range of sports, particularly athletics
• architecture and art

  weimar, 1919: first bauhaus school founded by Walter Gropius

  Walter Gropius, 1883-1969:

  • Regarded as a pioneer in modern architecture and founder of the Bauhaus movement.
  • Bauhaus theory was that all architecture and design was an opportunity to introduce beauty and quality to all, through well-designed and industrially produced items.
  • He became famous for iconic door handles, and several public buildings across Weimar.