Identity

• National Identity- Spencer et al

  National identity replacing ethnic identity- found evidence that white British people operate social closure against eastern European migrants.
• National identity- Ritzer

  Used the term McDonaldisation to explain the idea that no matter where you go in the world you are never too far way from McDonalds. This, he used, to explain that American culture has become far more important across the world.
• National identity- Sardar

  Argued that globalisation had diminished national identity and in order to strengthen national identity, we must embrace cultural diversity and our common humanity.
• National identity- Kumar

  Argued that English identity has been diluted by colonial attempts to expand Britishness.
• National identity- Postmodernism

  Argues that there has become blurring of identities and national cultures as a result of global culture.
• National identity- Hall

  Suggests there has been an increase in Hybrid and multi-nationalities replacing national identities.
• National identity- British Social Attitudes Survey

  Found that 75% still found speaking English, having British citizenship and respecting laws as being very or fairly British.
• National identity- Darcus Howe

  Argued that British national identity was seen as very exclusively white. Leading to him, as a black British man, questioning his role in a new nationalistic Britain.
• Gender identity- Sue Sharpe

  1970's- Family

  1990's- Career
• Gender identity- Jackson

  Argued that there had been a rise in ladettes- women who adopt "laddish behaviour", going against social norms and adopting challenging behaviour in education.
• Gender identity- Mac an Ghaill

  Used the term "crisis of masculinity" to describe males' insecurity which has occurred as a result of the feminisation of the workplace and the diminishing of the "breadwinner" identity.
• Gender identity- Postmodernist

  gender identity is now fluid, people can adopt aspects of gender identity that they see as positive.
• Gender identity- Hardill et al

  Found that women still have much less power within the family than men. They studied middle class women and found that they will often defer to their husbands on big decisions such as mortgages etc.,
• Gender identity- Hey

  Found that female peer groups often police each other's behaviour. Expectations of female behaviour are deeply rooted in patriarchy.
• Gender identity- Wilson

  Sociobiologists who argues that women need to nurture children where the need to reproduce requires men to "spread the seed."
• Gender identity- Anne Oakley

  Learn gender roles through gender role socialisation (manipulation, canalisation, verbal appellation and different activities).
• Gender identity- Parsons

  Argued men and women are naturally more suited to certain roles. Men- instrumental. Women- expressive.
• Gender identity- Canaan

  Studied w.class males in Wolverhampton and found that those who were employed had traditional ideas about what it meant to be a man. Those who were unemployed said that having a job was the most important thing and that they felt emasculated by their lack of employment.
• Gender identity- Postmodernist

  Gender identity has changed and no longer important as we adopt the aspects of identity that we want to, free from social pressures to conform.
• Gender identity- Denscombe

  Looked at Ladettes culture and found that many women now want to be seen as anything but the stereotype of womanhood.
• Gender identity- Gershunny

  While men have had trouble accepting their new role, they are going through a process of lagged adaptation- since women's role has changed so dramatically, men have not been able to catch up as quickly.
• Social Class identity- Weber

  Predicted that the middle class would grow and diversify. The traditional w.class is not nearly as significant in modern society as it used to be.
• Social Class identity- Fox

  upper middle, middle middle, lower middle
• Social Class identity- Hutton

  Argued that the decline in trade union membership, manufacturing and w.class communities has eroded w.class identities.
• Social Class identity- Pakulski and Waters

  Argue that we are now stratified based on cultural rather than economic differences.
• Social Class identity- Beck

  Argues that social class has become less important as the risks we now face (such as climate change) effect everyone regardless of class.
• Social Class identity- Cornford and Robbins

  Argue that the internet has allowed for the ruling classes to control our behaviour in new and more subtle ways.
• Social Class identity- Skeggs

  Found that many women from a w.class background felt humiliated over how they are viewed by the m.class. shows the attitudes towards social stratification and the power of certain groups have not changed.
• Social Class identity- Braverman

  Argues that there has been a proletarianisation of the w.class which has occurred as a result of the de-skilling of m.class jobs through automation meaning that middle class workers are now paid less.
• Social Class identity- Bourdieu

  Argued that class factions exist as a result of different levels of social, economic and cultural capital.
• Social Class identity- McIntosh and Mooney

  Argued that a key aspect of the u.class is their invisibility. They go to private schools and engage in different activities to the rest of society.
• Social Class identity- Saunders

  Argued there was a cultural fatalism amongst the underclass in which they believe that they will not be able to escape being a part of the underclass and so do not work to achieve better paying jobs.
• Social Class identity- Crompton

  Argued that the family leads to class reproduction. Those who are born into w.class families are taught to succeed in w.class jobs; those in m.class taught m.class skills.
• Social Class identity- Murray

  Argues that the underclass exist as a result of overly generous benefits and that their position within society is justified because society is meritocratic.
• Social Class identity- Functionalist

  Believe that society is meritocratic and so differences in social class are justified as they are based on a person's talents and efforts.
• Ethnic/hybrid identity- Sue Fox

  Used the term "multicultural London English" - Jafaican
• Ethnic/hybrid identity- Winston James

  The shared experience of racism unified African- Caribbean in the UK, who do not have a shared culture or heritage.
• Ethnic/hybrid identity- Spencer et al

  White, Eastern Europeans spend relatively little time socialising with British people, suggesting that British people operate social closure from immigrants.
• Ethnic/hybrid identity- Johal

  Brasians- Asian immigrants and found that they adopted cultural characteristics of British and Asian culture. cultural code switchers.
• Ethnic/hybrid identity- Downey

  Also found evidence of racism against Eastern European migrants due to fear of numbers which are not found in reality.