gender bias

• universality and bias

  Psychologists possess beliefs and values influenced by the social and historical context within which they live. This may undermine psychologists' claims to discover facts about human behaviour that are objective, value-free and consistent across time and culture (universality).

  Bias is a leaning towards a personal view that doesn't reflect reality. Psychological theory and research may not accurately represent the experience and behaviour of men and women (= gender bias).
• Alpha bias

  Differences between the sexes are usually presented as fixed and inevitable.

  These differences occasionally heighten the value of women, but are more likely to devalue females in relation to males.
• Alpha bias examples

  Alpha bias favouring males - Freud (1905) claimed children, in the phallic stage, desire their opposite-sex parent. Thisis resolved by identification with their same-sex parent. Buta girl's identification is weaker, creating a weaker Superego and weaker moral development.

  Alpha bias favouring females - Chodorow (1968) said that daughters and mothers are more connected than sons and mothers because of biological similarities - so women. develop better bonds and empathy for others.
• beta bias

  Ignoring or underestimating differences between men and women often occurs when female participants are not included in the research process but it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes.
• beta bias examples

  Early research into fight or flight was based on male animals (because female hormones fluctuate). Fight or flight was assumed to be a universal response to threat.

  Taylor et al. (2000) suggest that females exhibit a tend and befriend response governed by the hormone oxytocin which is more plentiful in women (but also present in smil quantities in men) and reduces the fight or flight response.

  It is an evolved response for caring for young (see page 180),
• Androcentrism

  Alpha and beta bias are consequences of androcentrism.

  Psychology has traditionally been a subject dominated by males - list of 100 famous psychologists contained 6 females.

  This leads to female behaviour being misunderstood and even pathologised (taken as a sign of illness).

  For example, feminists object to the category of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) because it medicalises female emotions (e.g. anger) by explaining these in hormonal terms. But male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures (Brescoll and Uhlmann 2008).
• Evaluation

  One limitation is that gender bias promotes sexism in the research process. Women are underrepresented in university departments (Murphy et al. 2014). Research is more likely to be conducted by males which may disadvantage females. For example, a male researcher may expect female participants to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks (Nicolson 1995), which may mean they underperform. This means that the institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender-biased.
• Evaluation

  One limitation is research challenging bias may not be published. Formanowicz et al.(2018) analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias - such research is funded less often and is published by less prestigious journals. This still held true when gender bias was compared to ethnic bias, and when other factors were controlled (e.g. the gender of the author(s) and methodology). This suggests that gender bias in psychological research. may not be taken as seriously as other forms of bias.
• Evaluation

  It could be questioned whether gender bias is good or bad. Gender-biased research creates misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fails to challenge negative stereotypes and validates discriminatory practices. However, modern researchers recognise the effect assumptions have on their work (reflexivity) and embrace them as a crucial aspect of the research process. This suggests that gender bias may add an extra dimension to research if psychologists are up front about it in their work.