genetics

• What is the definition of adaptation?

  Biological process for survival traits
• How do adaptations emerge in organisms?

  Through natural selection over generations
• What are the key characteristics of adaptation?

  • Inherited trait
  • Evolutionary process
  • Specific to environment
  • Increases survival probability
• What are the three levels of adaptation?

  Morphological, physiological, behavioral
• What is a morphological adaptation?


  Physical body structure changes
• What is a physiological adaptation?

  Internal biological process modifications
• What is a behavioral adaptation?

  Changes in how organisms interact
• Why do Arctic foxes have white fur in winter?

  For camouflage against snow
• How do adaptations enhance survival?

  By improving coping mechanisms in environments
• What are the survival benefits of adaptations?

  • Resource acquisition
  • Predator avoidance
  • Environmental resilience
• What are the reproductive advantages of adaptations?

  • Mate selection
  • Efficient reproduction methods
  • Increased offspring survival
• What drives genetic adaptation in populations?

  Natural selection favoring beneficial traits
• What is mutation in the context of adaptation?

  Random DNA alterations
• Restriction Enzyme


  An enzyme that cuts DNA at specific recognition sites.
• Cloning Vector


  A DNA molecule that is used to amplify and replicate a specific DNA sequence.
• Plasmid


  A self-replicating circular DNA molecule that is usually found in bacteria.
• Origin of Replication


  The site on a cloning vector where the DNA replication initiator protein binds to initiate replication.
• Rolling Circle Replication (RCR)

  A process of plasmid replication that involves unwinding the double-stranded DNA and synthesize new DNA strands.
• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

  A laboratory technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences.
• Denaturation


  Heat DNA to separate the double-stranded helix into single strands.
• Annealing


  Lower the temperature to allow specific primers to bind to the target DNA sequence.
• Extension


  Enzyme (Taq polymerase) adds nucleotides to the primers, extending the DNA strands.
• dNTPs (Deoxynucleotide Triphosphates)


  Deoxynucleotides (A, C, G, and T) used for DNA synthesis.
• Taq Polymerase


  Enzyme that extends the DNA strands during PCR.
• Primers in PCR


  Primers play a crucial role in the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) process, binding specifically to the target DNA sequence to initiate DNA synthesis.
• Functions of Primers


  Primers recognize and bind specifically to the target DNA sequence, initiate DNA synthesis, maintain specificity, and maintain processivity.
• Types of Primers


  End-specific primers, internal primers, and asymmetric primers.
• Optimization of Primers


  Specificity, specificity, length (15-30 nucleotides), and sequence (high GC content) are key factors for optimal primer design.
• Sequence of Primers


  Primers should contain a high GC content for increased specificity and stability.
• Principle of Sanger Sequencing

  PCR amplification, incorporation of dideoxynucleotides, fragment analysis, and sequencing.
• Limitations of Sanger Sequencing

  Time-consuming, high labor intensity, and difficult for long sequences.
• ddNTPs (Dideoxynucleotides)


  Nucleotides used to terminate DNA synthesis, used in Sanger sequencing.
• ddNTPs (Dideoxynucleotides)


  Dideoxynucleotides are used to terminate DNA synthesis at specific points, creating DNA fragments of different lengths, allowing for DNA sequencing.
• Purpose of ddNTPs


  To terminate DNA synthesis, preventing further extension, and creating a mixture of DNA fragments with different lengths for sequencing.
• Function of ddNTPs


  DdNTPs are incorporated into DNA synthesis in place of dNTPs, lacking a 3'-hydroxyl group, and cannot be further extended.
• What is the process called when bacteria take up foreign DNA?

  Transformation
• Why is transformation important in DNA cloning?

  It transfers plasmids to bacteria
• What are the two enzymes used in the ligation step of DNA cloning?

  Restriction enzymes and DNA ligase
• What happens to bacteria after transformation on antibiotic plates?

  Bacteria with plasmids survive and form colonies
• How do researchers identify bacteria with the correct plasmid?

  By using PCR or restriction digest