Memory

• What is meant by capacity?


  Refers to the amount of information that can be stored
• what is duration?


  the length of time information is held in the memory store
• what is coding?


  Refers to the way in which information is processed or stored in the memory e.g; acoustic visual semantic
• what is meant by the sensory memory?/sensory register.

  It is the initial stage of memory where information from our senses (sight, sound, touch etc) is briefly held for a very short period, typically lasting only a few seconds. It all allows us to process and briefly retain sensory information before it either fades away, or is transferred to short-term memory for further processing.
• what is the capacity for sensory memory?

  It is very large. This is because it can hold a fast amount of information from our senses at once. For example, when you look around a room, your eyes taking everything you see colours, shapes and movements all at the same time. This information is stored in sensory memory for a very brief moment, allowing you to notice many details without actively trying to remember them.
• what is the duration of sensory memory?

  250 ms
• What is coding of the sensory memory?

  Different types of sensitive information are stored in different ways based on the sense they come from.

  • Iconic Memory- this is for what we see. The image is stored in our brain for a very short time and helps us remember what we saw.
  • Echoic Memory- this is for what we hear. Our ear picks up the information, and it is held in our memory, allowing us to understand what was said even after the sound stops.
  • Haptic Memory- this is for what we touch. When we feel something like a soft blanket, it helps us remmeber , the texture or feeling.
• Explain what short-term memory means

  It’s like a temporary storage space in our brain, where information is held for short period. It all allows to keep track of things we need to remember right now like a phone number you just heard or a list of items to buy
• What is the capacity of short-term memory?

  The capacity of short-term memory is typically around 7 ± 2 items.
• What is the duration of short-term memory?

  18-30 seconds
• What is the coding of short term memory?

  Mainly Acoustic.

  It means that we remember information based on the sound of the words rather than their meaning. For example, if you hear a list of words or numbers, your brain tends to store them as this is why we might repeat a phone number out loud to help remember it.
• what is meant by long-term memory?

  It is like a big storage room in your brain where you keep information for a long time, sometimes even for years. They hold everything from facts and experiences to skills and knowledge. For example, you can think of it as a library go back and find information whenever you need it., to get this information you need to practice or repeat it and more meaningful the information is the easier it is to remember.
• what is the capacity of a long-term memory?

  unlimited
• What is the duration of long-term memory?

  Potentially forever
• What is the coding of long-term memory?

  Mainly Semantic

  It means that we remember information based on its meaning rather than just the sound of visuals. For example, when you learn new concepts, your brain stores them by understanding what they mean and how they relate to other information you already know.
• What was Jacob’s research on short term memory - CAPACITY ?

  He conducted the digit span test. Participants were presented with a sequence of digits or letters and acquired to repeat them back in the same order. However, the number of digits or letters gradually increased until the participant could no longer record the sequence in the correct order.
• what did Jacob find from his research on STM capacity?

  • Participants recalled more digits than letters.
  • The average span for digits was 9.3 whereas it was 7.3 for letters.
  • The results indicated that most people can’t typically remember about 7 digits + or -2. This is known as Millers law, and highlighted the limited capacity of short-term memory..
• what did Miller find about chunking?

  That the amount of information STM can hold can be increased by chunking. This refers to grouping information into into large items or chunks
• What was Peterson & Peterson’s research on STM Duration?

  Participants were given trigrams (e.g; BVM, CTG)

  And asked to recall the trigrams after 3, 6,9 , 12 15, or 18 seconds.

  They had to count backwards from three digit number in three and then recall the trigram
• What was Peterson & Peterson’s findings on STM Duration?

  after 3 seconds 80% of the trigrams were recalled. But after 18 seconds, less than 10% of the trigrams were recalled.

  This shows that information is lost from STM without rehearsal
• what was the rejecting evaluation for Jacob digit span technique for the capacity of STM?

  • Findings are inconsistent-the span for letters is lower than the span for digits.
  • Jacobs study use repeated measures so order effects may also be an issue
• what is a rejecting evaluation for the duration of STM in Petersons & Peterson research?

  Peterson and Peterson’s findings may be more to do with interference rather than duration
• What was Konkle’s research on LTM Capacity?

  Presented participants with 2912 pictures of scenes every three seconds, followed by a test of recognition memory. The scenes belong to a total of 128 different general categories. Long-term memory for the scenes was very good.

  When participants had to choose between a previously seen scene and a new scene from a category not used during the initial presentation, they were correct 96% of the time?
• What was Bahrick’s research on LTM Duration?

  392. American ex high school students aged from 17 to 14 were asked to remember the names of their classmates. - they were asked to name as many classmates as they could (free recall)

  • show photos of their classmates and asked to name them (photo recognition test)
  • Given the names of classmates and asked to match them to photographs (name recognition)
• What was Bahrick’s findings on LTM Duration?

  • participants who are tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in photo recognition and name recognition condition.
  • After 48 years recall, declined to about 70% for photo recognition and 80% for name recognition
  • Free Recall was less good than photo or name recognition.
  • It shows that information stays in LTM for a long time
• what are the strengths of research into the features of STM and LTM?

  • Research uses experimental methods -extraneous variables are controlled so causing effect can be established. It can also be replicated and it is reliable.
  • Some memory research is higher in validity for e.g; Bahricks study is a more realistic every day memory task
  • Memory research has practical application for e.g; rehearsal is needed for information to go to LTM
• what are the limitatioms of research into the features of STM and LTM?

  • lots of memory research uses artificial methods for e.g; recall of trigrams, lists of unconnected words - this doesn’t reflect how memory works in everyday life.
  • Lots of memory, research takes place in the lab so demand characteristics may occur, lacking ecological validity
  • Early research often lacked control, introducing confounding variables into the study, reducing validity
• What is the multi store model?

  Representation of how memory works in terms of three stores: sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It describes how information is transferred from one store to another, and how it is forgotten.
• What is the MSM experiment?

  Where you are given words shown one by one, and after the large list of words are shown, you asked to recall them and write as many, as you know down
• in terms of the MSM experiment, what does it mean by the serial position effect?

  • The primary effect.: most people recall the beginning, set of words -these words were the first on the list they’ve been rehearsed before ST became full so we can recall them from our LTM
  • Regency effect: people recall the end set of words because these words are seen most recently, so we can recall them as they are still in our STM.
  • The words in the middle have been displaced due to limited capacity of the STM
• SUPPORTING Evaluation of the MSM: evidence

  Evidence supports differences in the coding capacity and duration of the three stores, and the existence of more than one store in the memory. Studies suggest STM and LTM are different. For example, brain scans showed that LTM tasks showed activity in the hippocampus.
• REJECTING Evaluation of the MSM: too simplistic

  That MSM is too simplistic, because the STM is not unitary. KF suffered brain damage due to a motorcycle accident and could not remember the words read to him. (verbal information.) but could if he read them himself. (visual information.) this suggests that there must be more than one store in STM. - one store to process auditory information, and one for visual information
• REJECTING Evaluation of the MSM: Relies on rehearsal to transfer in formation from STM to LTM

  In everyday life, we do not actively try and sort things in our memory by rehearsal. Important unrehearsed things enter LTM. Evidence suggests rehearsal is not the only method of transfer from STM to LTM so more than one type of rehearsal..

  • maintenance- repeating information over and over again
  • Elaborative- elaborating material by giving it meaning, or linking it with pre-existing knowledge, for example, pneumonic, or rhyming
• REJECTING Evaluation of the MSM: lacks ecological validity

  research supporting the MSM use of nonsense, syllables, digits, and words which have no meaning. In everyday life, we fall memories related to names, places, et cetera. This suggests the MSM lacks ecological validity.. research findings may reflect how memory works with meaningless material lab testing, but does not reflect how we works in every day life
• What is meant by Episodic Memory as a type of LTM?

  a type of long-term memory for personal events. It includes memories of when the event occurred (time-stamped), the people, places, objects, and behaviours involved. These memories require conscious effort to recall.
• What is meant by Semantic memory as a type of LTM?

  for knowledge of the world. It includes facts, meanings, concepts, and general knowledge. Unlike episodic memory, semantic memory is not time-stamped (you don’t remember when you learned it), and it requires conscious effort to recall.
• What is meant by Procedural memory as a type of LTM?

  for how to do things. It includes memories of learned skills, such as riding a bike or tying shoelaces. These memories are typically retrieved without conscious effort.
• Give one similiarity between episodic and semantic?

  They can both be consciously recalled
• What is meant by central executive?

  Developed by Baddely + Hitch.

  It acts like a “manager” or “boss” that controls and directs attention. It decides what tasks need focus and which parts of your memory system should handle them.
• What are the key points of the Central Executive?

  • controls the whole system + designates tasks.
  • send auditory info to the PL and visual info to the VSSP
  • Has limited capacity (can only focus on a small amount of info at once)
  • Modality free (doesn’t store info in any particular form e,g; visual or sound)
  • Allocates limited attention to tasks by focusing it on the one task or dividing it between more