Gender

• what is sex?

  a person's biological status as a man or woman determined by chromosomes
• what is a gender?

  a person's psychosocial status as masculine or feminine, it's fluid and open to change
• what is gender dysphoria?

  when a person's biologically prescribed sex doesn't reflect the way they feel inside and the gender they identify themselves as
• what are sex-role stereotypes

  a set of shared expectations that people within a society or culture hold about what is acceptable behaviour for men and women. They are communicated through society and reinforced by parents, peers, the media, and institutions
• what is androgyny?


  a personality type which is characterised by a balance of female and masculine traits, attitudes, and behaviours. It's associated with psychological well being as they're better equipped for a range of situations, and aren't affected by stereotypes
• how can you measure androgyny?

  the bem sex role inventory (BSRI)
• what is the BSRI?

  a scale which presents 20 characteristics that would commonly be identified as 'masculine', 20 that would be identified as 'feminine' , and 20 'neutral' traits. PS rate themselves on a 7 point rating scale for each item. Scores are then classified on the basis of 2 dimensions: masc-fem andro-undiff
• what are strengths for the BSRI

  -Androgyny is measured quantitively, useful for research processes e.g. to quantify a dependent variable in a research study

  -valid and reliable at the time, developed by asking 50 men and women to rate 200 terms and the top 20 were chosen for the BSRI, piloted with over 1000 students and results corresponded with their gender identities, follow up study with smaller sample of same students produced similar scores demonstrating test-restest reliability
• what are limitations for the BSRI

  -qualitative data may be better as there is more to gender then a set of behaviours typical of one gender or the other

  -temporal validity, developed over 40 years ago and behaviours that are regarded as 'typical' in relation to gender have changed significantly since then

  -ecological validity, developed in US, notions of gender may not be shared across all cultures

  -people might not have insight into their gender, may not be able to rate themselves, scoring system is subjective and may differ, BSRI may not be objective or scientific
• the role of chromosomes in sex and gender

  the baby's sex is determined by the sperm that fertilises the egg cell - female if it carries X chromosome and male if it carries Y.
• the role of hormones in sex and gender

  hormones act upon brain development in the womb and causes development of the reproductive organs. At puberty a burst of hormonal activity triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics
• the role of testosterone in sex and gender

  controls the development of male sex organs and is linked to aggression
• the role of oestrogen in sex and gender

  determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation. Can cause heightened emotionality and irritability during menstruation
• the role oxytocin in sex and gender

  women typically produce this in higher amounts as a result of giving birth. Stimulates lactation, reduces cortisol, and facilitates bonding
• strength of the role of hormones and chromosomes in sex and gender

  -evidence support, 227 hypogonadal men given testosterone treatment for 180 days, improved mood, sexual function, libido, and muscle strength, link between testosterone and sexual behaviour
• limitations of the role of hormones and chromosomes in sex and gender

  -ignores the role of sexual factors, gender roles are a consequence of social norms, individualist cultures are likely to be seen as more masculine

  -reductionist, can't explain cognitive changes, gender is more complex then biological factors

  -contradictory evidence, double blind test increased testosterone in young men and found no significant increases in sexual behaviour
• what is Klinefelter's syndrome?

  atypical sex chromosome pattern which affects men, biological men with an extra X chromosome (XXY), reduced body hair, some breast development, long limbs, underdeveloped genitalia, susceptible to female health conditions, poor language skills and reading ability
• what is Turner's syndrome?

  atypical sex chromosome pattern with affects women, absence of a X chromosome (XO), no menstrual cycle, infertile, don't develop breasts, physically immature, high reading ability, poor spatial, visual, and mathematical ability, socially immature
• strengths of research into atypical sex chromosomes

  -contribution to nature-nurture debate, can see psychological and behavioural differences, can be inferred they have a biological basis

  -application to managing the syndromes, more research leads to earlier and more accurate diagnosis, those treated at young age had significant benefits
• limitations of research into atypical sex chromosomes

  -sampling issue, only people with severe symptoms are identified so picture of typical symptoms may be distorted, prospective studies have produced a more accurate picture of the characteristics

  -correlation not causation, environmental and social influences could be responsible for the behaviour observed e.g. social immaturity could be because they are treated immaturely by others
• cognitive explanations: Kohlberg's theory

  based on idea that child's understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age due to biological maturation, gender development progresses through 3 stages: gender identity, gender stability, gender constancy
• what is the gender identity stage of Kohlberg's theory?

  around the age of 2 children can identity themselves as boy or girl, at 3 most children can identify others, this understanding doesn't stretch past simple labelling, don't view gender as fixed
• what is the gender stability stage of Kohlberg's theory?

  at 4 children understand that their gender doesn't change, can't apply this logic to others, confused by external changes in appearance
• what is the gender constancy stage of Kohlberg's theory?

  at 6 children recognises that their gender is fixed and this understanding is applied to others, able to seek out gender appropriate role models, a tendency towards gender stereotyping emerges
• strength of Kohlberg's theory

  -evidence suggests that gender stereotyping does emerge around age 6, children told a story of George who likes to play with dolls, 4 year olds said it was fine, 6 year olds thought it was wrong
• limitations of Kohlberg's theory

  -supporting research relies on unsatisfactory methods to asses gender constancy, in our culture we demarcate genders by appearance, best way to differentiate gender was through physical differences, Bem demonstrated that 40% of children aged 3-5 showed constancy when showed a naked photo,

  -research has suggested there may be different degrees of gender constancy, Martin et al, first stage may orient children towards the importance of gender in choosing friends, second stage may heighten children's responsiveness to gender norms