philo23 finals

• Fairness as a Core Value: Rawls argues that justice is primarily a matter of fairness, and that just institutions should be designed to treat all individuals fairly.
• Social Contract Theory: Rawls's theory is rooted in social contract theory, but it offers a novel interpretation of the social contract.
• Distributive Justice: Rawls focuses on how society should distribute its benefits and burdens.
• Equality of Opportunity: Rawls emphasizes the importance of fair equality of opportunity, ensuring that everyone has a fair chance to succeed.
• The Role of the State: The state plays a crucial role in ensuring justice, particularly by redistributing wealth and resources to the least advantaged.
• What is phronesis in Aristotle's ethics?

  Practical wisdom
• Who are the most famous proponents of utilitarianism?

  Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
• Two Principles of Justice: 1.

  The Principle of Equal Liberty: Each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with similar liberties for others. 2.

  The Difference Principle: Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged and attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
• Principles •

  Original Position: A hypothetical situation where individuals choose principles of justice without knowing their own social position, class, or personal characteristics. •

  Veil of Ignorance: A mental state in which individuals are unaware of their own particular circumstances, ensuring impartiality in the choice of principles.
• What is consequentialism?


  The morality of an action is determined by consequences
• The Good Will: Kant argues that the only thing that is unconditionally good is the good will, which is the will to do one's duty for duty's sake.
• Moral Absolutes: Kant believes in moral absolutes, meaning that certain actions are always right or wrong, regardless of the circumstances.
• Rationality: Kant emphasizes the role of reason in determining moral principles.
• Duty-Based Ethics: Kant's ethics is primarily duty based. The morality of an action is determined by the intention behind it, not the consequences.
• Formulations

  The Formula of Universal Law: This formulation suggests that one should act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.

  The Formula of Humanity: This formulation states that one should treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end in itself. This means that people should not be used as mere tools to achieve a goal but should always be respected as rational beings.
• Immanuel Kant's Categorical Imperative is a fundamental principle of deontological ethics. It posits that moral actions are those that can be universally willed, without contradiction. In other words, an action is morally right if it can be consistently applied to all people, without exception.
• Key Concepts of Utilitarianism •

  The greatest happiness principle: This principle states that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend1 to produce the reverse of happiness.2 •

  Utility: Utility is a measure of happiness or pleasure. Utilitarians believe that the goal of morality is to maximize utility. •

  Consequentialism: Consequentialism is the view that the morality of an action is determined by its consequences. Utilitarians believe that the best way to determine whether an action is right or wrong is to consider its consequences.
• Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that prescribes actions that maximize utility, or happiness. It is a consequentialist theory, meaning that the morality of an action is judged solely by its consequences. The most famous proponents of utilitarianism are Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
• Phronesis, or practical wisdom, is essential for applying ethical principles to real-life dilemmas.
• Reason plays a crucial role in Aristotle's ethics. It enables us to discern the right course of action in specific situations, considering the particular circumstances and the relevant virtues.
• A key concept in Aristotelian ethics is the Golden Mean. This principle suggests that virtue lies between two extremes: excess and deficiency. For instance, courage is the mean between cowardice and recklessness. To cultivate virtue, one must develop habits of virtuous behavior through practice and experience.
• Central to this philosophy is the concept of eudaimonia, often translated as "human flourishing" or "happiness." Unlike other ethical theories that focus on actions or consequences, Aristotle's ethics is primarily concerned with character.
• Synderesis, often described as the "spark of conscience," is an intuitive knowledge of moral principles that is inherent in every human being. It is a natural inclination to do good and avoid evil. This moral compass, while imperfect, provides a foundational understanding of right and wrong.
• Secondary Precepts These are derived from the primary precepts and vary depending on specific circumstances. For example, the secondary precept "do not murder" is derived from the primary precept "preserve life."
• Primary Precepts of Natural Law

  Preservation of Life: The fundamental principle of self-preservation.

  Procreation: The continuation of the human species.

  Seek Knowledge: The pursuit of truth and understanding.

  Live in Society: The need for human interaction and community.

  Worship God: The recognition of a higher power and the need for spiritual fulfillment.
• 4 natural law

  Eternal Law: God's rational plan for the universe. It is the source of all law.

  Natural Law: Human participation in the eternal law. It is discovered through reason.

  Human Law: Laws created by humans to govern society. It should be derived from natural law.

  Divine Law: Revealed law, such as the Ten Commandments, that complements natural law.