KQ2

• Tropical Rainforests Carbon cycle flows Dense habitation by flora and fauna species results in high rates of respiration. High temperatures mean faster rates of weathering, particularly chelation. There's a high rate of photosynthesis due to high temperatures and light in the canopy. There are high rates of decomposition due to high temperatures and lots of nutrients and decomposers in the forest floor
• Tundra carbon cycle flows Due to the low temperatures and extreme conditions in these regions, there is very low biodiversity and this results in lower rates of respiration. Low temperatures mean slow rate of weathering. Low rate of photosynthesis due to lack of light and lower temperatures. Low rates of decomposition due to low temperature and few decomposers
• What are tundras? Tundras form the Earth’s coldest and harshest biomes. The ecosystems are treeless regions with extreme cold and low rainfall. There are two different types of tundras; alpine and arctic. Alpine tundras occur in the mountains where trees cannot grow due to high altitiude, where the growing season is only about 180 days of the year. The arctic tundra extends from the edge of the arctic ocean down to the coniferous forests of the Taiga. Permafrost prevents trees from taking root, but shrubs and other vegetation grow during the short summers which range from 50 to 60 days. Globa...
• The water cycle in the arctic tundra Low evapotranspiration rates due to temperatures below freezing. Low infiltration rates due to permafrost. Frozen land means less soil water storage (low ground permeability). Low humidity due to low rates of evapotranspiration. Permafrost restricts infiltration of water which makes vegetation water storage low.
• The carbon cycle in the arctic tundra Extremely slow decomposition rates due to low temperatures as well as low vegetation. Very low net primary production at 200g/m^2 due to less solar radiation. Limited respiration due to low temperatures. Low rate of photosynthesis due to low temperatures and less solar radiation. Low biosphere carbon storage due to Slowed reactions from low temperatures. 1700Gt carbon storage within the permafrost.
• Physical factors of the arctic tundra Impermeable crystalline rocks with some glacial deposits so runoff is increased which means the likelihood of saturation is increased so infiltration could decrease. Flat relief and low infiltration so water tends to pool creating ponds, bogs, marshes and streams. Winds often blow upwards of 50-100km/h which increases the water in the air because it's carried from the sea. This increases transpiration
• Seasonal changes in the tundra Temperatures remain extremely low (0 to 6 degrees) 10 months a year but warms to 20 degrees in Sumer which increases evapotranspiration and photosynthesis.
• Why does the permafrost affect the water cycle? For 8 months a year, water is not transported because it's in the permafrost which impacts precipitation
• Arctic tundras They are the Earth's coldest and harshest biomes, they are found in high latitudes approximately 66 degrees north and cover around 8 million km^2. In summer, temperatures of plus or minus 16 degrees experienced cause melting and thaw of the uppermost layer of permafrost, called the active layer. Due to the permafrost, infiltration of precipitation is limited and runoff is high. There is limited percolation. Rates of evaporation are low in winter because the average air temperature is -34 degrees and most of the precipitation is stored as snow. The carbon uptake by plants in phot...
• Arctic Tundra 2 Many species are adapted to the cold and windy weather conditions by being small. The transpiration rate is low because there are only 2 or 3 months of the year when growing can take place. In summer, the longer hours of sunlight enables plants to flower and fruit in a few weeks, however the NPP is only 200 grams/m^2/year. Extremely low decomposition rates occur due to limited organic matter, however snow cover insulates microorganisms allowing some decomposition to occur. In summer, soil remains cold as the sun's energy is mainly used to melt the snow and this means that there...
• Ice melt in the Arctic tundra Arctic sea ice is now shrinking at a rate of 12.6% per decade, compared to its average extent during the period from 1981 to 2010. This reduces the ice water cycle store and increases the ocean water store.
• Vegetation shift in the Arctic tundra Climate models predict a 52% increases in forest and shrub cover by 2050 due to temperature increases, acting as a negative feedback through increased photosynthesis; thereby increasing biosphere carbon storage.
• Polar vortex expansion Changes in temperature differences can make the polar vortex expand further south and increase the frequency and severity of extremely cold storm events.
• Coastal erosion in the Arctic Tundra Due to sea level rise, coastal erosion rates have doubled in the last two decades; threatening permafrost areas and carbon stores. Increased erosion of rocks may release more carbon into the oceans.
• Permafrost melt in the Arctic tundra On the North Slope of the ANWR, up to 40 million tonnes CO2 is released into the atmosphere each year due to permafrost melt.
• How is the deadhorse oil refinery affecting the water cycle? Each year approximately 20 billion barrels of water are extracted and used to refine oil, depleting groundwater and river water stores.
• How is prudhoe bay population increase affecting the carbon and water cycles? The Prudhoe Bay population increased from 25 to 3000 between 2000 and 2010. Cement production from the increased urbanisation releases CO2 into the atmospheric store, reduction in biosphere carbon storage and increased overland water flows due to impermeable urban surfaces which also have a lower albedo, enhancing localised solar radiation absorption and warming.
• How did the construction of the Dalton highway affect the carbon and water cycles? Asphalt production for the 666km long highway released CO2 into the atmospheric store which reduced the biosphere carbon storage and increased overland water flows due to impermeable urban surfaces.
• How does the Trans Alaska Pipeline affect the carbon cycle? The Trans Alaska pipeline has oil that travels at 60 degrees. The heat produced melts permafrost underneath it; releasing CO2 into the atmospheric store and reduce the permafrost carbon store.
• How do oil spills affect the water cycle? Pollute ocean and groundwater stores for long periods of time.
• How does oil rig flaring affect the carbon cycle? Oil rig flaring is the burning of waste gas byproducts of oil extraction. This releases large quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere.
• What is the ANWR? The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. A 19.6 million acre heavily disputed area between private oil drilling companies and conservationists.
• What species live in the ANWR? Home to polar, grizzly and black bears Over 200 species of birds 8 marine mammal species Thousands of caribou, wolves, moose and more. Caribou and polar bears are essential for the subsistence lifestyles of the Alaska Native Tribes
• What is the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field? Prudhoe Bay is the third largest oil field in the US. It has a current output at about 281,800 barrels of oil per day. It supports more than 16,000 Alaska jobs and supplies 55% of all Alaska oil production. The State of Alaska has earned $141 billion in revenues from the North Slope production and development. The Prudhoe Bay oil fields and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline system cause about 500 oil and toxic chemical spills annually on the North Slope. Since the BP operated oil field started its production 40 years ago, it has generated over 12.5 billion barrels of...
• What happened in 2006 in Prudhoe Bay? The field's largest oil spill happened in 2006 when a corroded BP pipeline ruptured and leaked roughly 267,000 gallons of oil. Waterfowl, ringed seals, bowhead whales and polar bears suffered from the oil spill because of habitat degradation, this caused loss of life.
• How much oil does the pipeline transport? 212 million barrels of oil every year
• How many people does the trans alaskan pipeline employ, and how much money does it contribute to the state economy? It employs 110,000 people and brings in $14 billion to the state economy
• What local issues have been caused by the trans alaskan pipeline? There have been leaks like the one in Fort Greely in 2010 and there has been damage during earthquakes. In 1989, a tanker named Exxon Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound releasing almost 11 million gallons of crude oil. The pipeline also impacts caribou herds by blocking migration routes, making caribou herds smaller. The most recent pipeline leak occurred in April 2020, where 50 thousand gallons of oily water had to be recovered to prevent damage to wildlife.
• What is a future issue for the trans alaskan pipeline? Thawing permafrost could undermine the supports holding up an elevated section of the Trans Alaskan Pipeline, this raises the potential of an oil spill. This becomes more likely to occur with rising temperatures from global warming
• Insulated ice and gravel pads - oil and gas management Roads and other infrastructure can be constructed on insulating ice or gravel pads, thus protecting the permafrost from melting. The spine road at Prudhoe bay lies on a 2m deep pad. These mitigate the effects of global warming which prevent floods and preserve the habitats for vital species like the caribou.
• Drilling laterally beyond drilling platforms - oil and gas management in the arctic tundra New drilling techniques allow oil and gas to be accessed several kilometres from the drilling site. With fewer sites needed for drilling rigs, the impact on vegetation and the permafrost due to construction of access roads, pipelines etc. is greater reduced.
• Building pipelines elevated on piles - oil and gas management in the arctic tundra Constructing buildings, oil and gas pipelines and other infrastructure on piles allows cold air to circulate beneath these structures. This provides insulation against heat-generating buildings, pipework etc. which would otherwise melt the permafrost
• More powerful computers can detect oil and gas bearing geological structures remotely - oil and gas management in the arctic tundra Fewer exploration wells are needed thus reducing the impact on the environment. About 10% of all supercomputers have been delievered to the oil industry. Its two big computational tasks are seismic data processing and reservoir modelling
• Refrigerated supports - oil and gas management in the arctic tundra Used on the trans-alaska pipeline to stabilise the temperature of the permafrost.