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• Aim - a general statement that describes the purpose of an investigation 

  In psychological research, aims are developed from theories. We based on previous literature to design experiments that aim to have new discoveries.
• Literature - published research
• Hypothesis - a testable statement which predicts the outcome at the start of a study. These can be directional or non-directional
• Directional - the research makes clear anticipation of experimental outcome. (one-tailed hypothesis), when there are sufficient studies and research showing a particular outcome
• Non-directional - simply states that there is a difference between conditions and/or groups of people, but the nature of the difference is not specified (two-tailed hypothesis), when there is limited research findings or there had been mixed findings on the area of research
• Do not mention results in hypothesis!!! Instead, 

  ‘It is predicted that..’
• We need to make sure variables are well operationalised to ensure that they can be well-measured and tested

  This is important to establish a clear cause and effect between the variables. Minimise the potential extraneous variables that might affect the results

  Ensure a standardised procedure can be maintained. The study can be easily replicated in future studies. 
• Lab

  Experiment is conducted in a room/lab setting where variables are well controlled by the researcher 

  High control over extraneous variables - helps to establish a clear cause and effect between IV and DV

  High level of control means a standardised procedure can be established. Study can be replicated 

  Might lack ecological validity due to the high level of control, artificial setting, not reflecting real life environment 

  Demand characteristics
• Field

  The IV is manipulated in a natural, more everyday setting. The researcher does the experiment in participants’ usual environment rather than in a laboratory setting

  Can have high mundane realism and ecological validity - study is done in a more natural environment

  Less likely to have demand characteristics

  Loss control over Evs - harder to establish cause and effect, reducing validity

  Potential ethical issues when participants are unaware of the fact that they are in an experiments
• Natural

  Researchers measure the effect of an IV on a DV. The researcher does not have control over the IV and can not change it 

  Natural experiment can occur in a lab since only the IV is naturally occurring 

  Necessary when manipulation of IV can not be done due to practical and ethical reasons

  High external validity due to the study involve real-world issues and problems 

  Some of the naturally occurring events might be rare - difficult to generalise to other similar situations

  Researchers might find it difficult to identify the causation between variables when IV cannot be manipulated
• Quasi 

  Having an IV that is based on an existing difference between people. No one has manipulated this, because it is something thar can not be changed

  The methods of investigation for quasi experiments can be similar to a lab experiment, however the difference is that we have no control over the IV at all

  Often carried out under controlled conditions. Which therefore shares some strengths of a lab experiment

  Difficult to infer cause and effect since we can not change the IV

  Cannot use random allocation and so there may be confounding variables
• Experimental design refers to the way in which participants are arranged in experiments, or how the experiment should be carried out
• Independent groups 

  When two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment, If there are two levels of IV this means there will only be the experimental condition and control condition.

  The results between two or more conditions will be compared and analysed.
• Repeated measures 

  All participants experience both conditions of the experiment 

  Individual differences are controlled

  Fewer participants are needed 

  Order effects may take place - extraneous variables can occur when the same group of participants participating in two conditions e.g fatigue

  This can be prevented by counterbalancing - half do A then B, half do B then A 
• Independent groups 

  When two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment, If there are two levels of IV this means there will only be the experimental condition and control condition.

  The results between two or more conditions will be compared and analysed.

  Order effects can be prevented

  Demand characteristics can also be prevented

  Can be time and money-consuming

  Could be evs affecting the results in the two conditions, as there could be individual differences between participants
• Matched Pairs

  Participants are put into conditions based on similarity of backgrounds, looking at variables that are likely to be relevant to our study

  Better than independent groups in controlling participant variables and minimising individual differences

  Time consuming an expensive

  Extremely different to fully eliminate individual differences
• Qualitative data

  • Greater external validity
  • Difficult to analyse
  • Researcher bias
• Quantitative data

  • Simple to analyse
  • objective
  • Doesn’t represent ‘real life’
• primary data

  • obtained from experiments, questionnaires, interview, observation
  • Perfect data
  • Requires time and effort
• secondary data

  • obtained from journals, articles, books, websites
  • Inexpensive, easily accessible
  • Variation in the quality and accuracy of data
• Meta-analysis

  Definition:

  A technique where rather than conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of several studies that have already been conducted
• Extraneous variables

  Any variable that might potentially interfere with the DV are extraneous variables.

  These variables could make it harder to detect a result in our research, but do not vary based on our IV e.g lighting, temperature, noise
• Confounding variables

  These types of EV do vary with our IV. Just like EVs, confounding variables make it difficult to establish cause and effect e.g tiredness, personality, emotion
• Participant variables - individual difference between participants that could affect the DV e.g personality, age, gender, motivation, intelligence, concentration

  Situational variables - features of the situation that could affect the DV e.g noise, time of day, temperature, instructions, weather
• Demand characteristics

  Participants in experiments are active and might be making sense of the new situation

  Participants may sometimes work out what the experiment is, and then act accordingly, known as demand characteristics

  • Pleasing the researcher ‘please you effect’
  • Not cooperating ‘screw you effect’
• Social desirability 

  A tendency for participants to present themselves in a generally favourable light 

  Not accurate, not valid 
• Investigator effects..

  Refers to undesired influence of the investigator on the research outcome
• Expectancy effect: one’s behaviour is affected by how they expected the outcome will be
• Unconscious bias: subjective decisions and judgements made by the investigators
• Leading question: asking questions that guide participants to answer in specific ways
• To minimise investigator effects, randomisation is used

  Randomisation: the use of chance methods to reduce unconscious bias
• 16 trials in a study, how can a researcher randomly decide which should be critical?

  Put number 1-16 into a random number generator

  Randomly generate one number, for example 3

  The 3rd trial will be the first critical trial. Number 3 will the be removed from the generator’s list
• Confidentiality

  Participants should remain anonymous so that data cannot be identified as theirs (e.g. their names should be withheld when data is reported).
• Informed consent

  Participants must be briefed on objectives of the investigation and what will be required of them should they take part. In turn they must accept these conditions to proceed, and be put under no pressure to do so.
• Deception

  Generally, participants should not be misled during an investigation. However, sometimes participants need to be unaware of the true aims of an investigation - or even that they are participating in a study - to yield results that are considered valid (i.e. the data is a true reflection of what was supposed to be measured). This emphasises the need for participants to be debriefed at end of the study.
• Right to withdraw

  As part of their briefing prior to giving consent to partake, participants must be informed that they can leave the study at any point if they wish, and are under no obligation to disclose a reason why if they do.
• Protection of participants

  It is the responsibility of the researcher to ensure that participants are not caused any long-term physical or mental damage. For instance, it may be that participants are temporarily caused distress, although research will be pre-approved by an ethics committee to ensure this is sufficiently minimized, and researchers are expected to take participants through a detailed debriefing
• Working with animals

  If non-human animals are to be used in an investigation, researchers can only use species that are considered scientifically suitable according to ethical guidelines. Procedures that could cause physical or mental harm should be avoided where possible, and it is encouraged that investigations take place in their natural environment. Animals must be properly cared for if the study requires them to be kept captive.
• Self-report refers to any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, experiences on a given topic
• Questionnaires - a set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts/experience

  Widely used as a form of assessment for research

  Open (qualitative) - no fixed range of answers, respondents may answer how they choose

  Closed (quantitative) - fixed responses, respondents choose from the options available